The Gospel According To

Matthew

The Book Of Matthew

Matthew is the gospel written by a Jew to Jews about a Jew. Matthew is the writer, his countrymen are the readers, and Jesus Christ is the subject. Matthew’s design is to present Jesus as the King of the Jews, the long-awaited Messiah. Through a carefully selected series of Old Testament quotations, Matthew documents Jesus Christ’s claim to be Messiah. His genealogy, baptism, messages, and miracles all point to the same inescapable conclusion: Christ is King. Even in His death, seeming defeat is turned to victory by the Resurrection, and the message again echoes forth: the King of the Jews lives.

An early date this gospel was given is the title Kata Maththaion, “According to Matthew.” As this title suggests, other gospel accounts were known at that time (the word gospel was added later). Matthew (“Gift of the Lord”) was also surnamed Levi (Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27).

The Author Of Matthew

The early church uniformly credited Matthew with the authorship of this gospel. And in addition to the testimony of the church, Matthew’s book was known in history (A.D. 135) to have been attributed to him by Papias (c. A.D. 140) that Matthew wrote “logia” (“sayings”) in a Hebrew dialect. No Aramaic gospel of Matthew has been found, and it is evident that Matthew is not a Greek translation of an Aramaic original. Some believe that Matthew wrote an abbreviated version of Jesus’ sayings in Aramaic before writing his gospel in Greek for a larger circle of readers.

Matthew, the son of Alphaeus (Mark 2:14), occupied the unpopular post of tax collector in Capernaum for the Roman government. As a publican he was no doubt disliked by his Jewish countrymen. When Jesus called him to discipleship (9:9–13; Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27, 28), his quick response probably meant that he had already been stirred by Jesus’ public preaching. He gave a large reception for Jesus in his house so that his associates could meet Jesus. He was chosen as one of the twelve apostles, and the last appearance of his name in the Bible is in Acts 1:13. Matthew’s life from that point on is veiled in tradition.

The Time Of Matthew

Like all the gospels, Matthew is not easy to date; suggestions have ranged from A.D. 40 to 140. The two expressions “to this day” (27:8) and “until this day” (28:15) indicate that a substantial period of time had passed since the events described in the book, but they also point to a date prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. The Olivet Discourse (24 and 25) also anticipates this event. The strong Jewish flavor of this gospel is another argument for a date prior to A.D. 70. If Matthew depended on Mark’s gospel as a source, the date of Mark would determine the earliest date for Matthew. The likely time frame for this book is A.D. 58–68. It may have been written in Palestine or Syrian Antioch.

The Christ Of Matthew

Matthew presents Jesus as Israel’s promised messianic King (1:23; 2:2, 6; 3:17; 4:15–17; 21:5, 9; 22:44, 45; 26:64; 27:11, 27–37). The phrase “the kingdom of heaven” appears thirty-two times in Matthew but nowhere else in the New Testament. To show that Jesus fulfills the qualifications for the Messiah, Matthew uses more Old Testament quotations and allusions than any other book (almost 130). Often used in this gospel is the revealing phrase “that what was spoken through the prophet might be fulfilled,” which appears nine times in Matthew and not once in the other gospels. Jesus is the climax of the prophets (12:39, 40; 13:13–15, 35; 17:5–13), the “Son of Man” (24:30, 44), the “Son of David” (12:17–21), and the “Son of God” (16:16).

Keys To Matthew

Key Word: Jesus the King — A Jewish tax collector named Matthew writes to a Jewish audience to convince them that the King of Jews has come. By quoting repeatedly from the Old Testament, Matthew validates Christ’s claims that He is, in fact, the prophesied Messiah (the Anointed One) of Israel. Everything about this King is unique: His miraculous birth and obscure yet carefully prophesied birthplace, His flight into Egypt, His announcement by John, His battle with Satan in the wilderness, all support the one possible conclusion—Jesus is the culmination of promises delivered by the prophets over a period of a thousand years. Thus God’s redemptive plan is alive and well, even after four hundred years of prophetic silence.

Key Verses: Matthew 16:16–19 and 28:18–20 — “And Simon Peter answered and said, ‘You are the Christ, the Son of the living God.’ Jesus answered and said to him, ‘Blessed are you, Simon Bar-Jonah, for flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but My Father who is in heaven. And I also say to you, that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build My church, and the gates of Hades shall not prevail against it. And I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven" (16:16-19). "Then Jesus came and spoke to them, saying, 'All authority has been given to Me in heaven and on earth. Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all things that I have commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age.' Amen" (28:18-20).

Key Chapter: Matthew 12-

SURVEY OF MATTHEW

Outline of Matthew

Part One: The Presentation of the King (1:1—4:11)

I. The Advent of the King ........ 1:1—2:23
A. Genealogy of Christ ........ 1:1–17
B. Birth of Christ ........ 1:18–25
C. Visit of Wise Men ........ 2:1–12
D. Flight into Egypt ........ 2:13–15
E. Slaughter of the Children ........ 2:16–18
F. Jesus Returns to Nazareth ........ 2:19–23

II. The Announcer of the King ........ 3:1–12
A. The Person of John the Baptist ........ 3:1–6
B. The Preaching of John the Baptist ........ 3:7–12

III. The Approval of the King ........ 3:13—4:11
A. Baptism of Jesus ........ 3:13–17
B. Temptation of Jesus ........ 4:1–11
1. First Temptation ........ 4:1–4
2. Second Temptation ........ 4:5–7
3. Third Temptation ........ 4:8–11

Part Two: The Proclamation of the King (4:12—7:29)

I. The Background for the Sermon ........ 4:12–25
A. Jesus Begins His Ministry ........ 4:12–17
B. Jesus Calls His First Disciples ........ 4:18–22
C. Jesus Ministers in Galilee ........ 4:23–25

II. The Sermon on the Mount ........ 5:1—7:29
A. The Subjects of the Kingdom ........ 5:1–16
1. The Beatitudes ........ 5:1–12
2. The Similitudes ........ 5:13–16

B. The Relationship of Jesus to the Law ........ 5:17–7:12
1. Jesus Fulfills the Law ........ 5:17–19
2. Jesus Rejects Pharisaic Interpretation ........ 5:20–48
a. Murder ........ 5:21–26
b. Adultery ........ 5:27–30
c. Divorce ........ 5:31,32
d. Oaths ........ 5:33–37
e. Retaliation ........ 5:38–42
f. Love ........ 5:43–48

3. Jesus Rejects Pharisaic Practices ........ 6:1–7:6
a. Charitable Deeds ........ 6:1–4
b. Prayer ........ 6:5–15
c. Fasting ........ 6:16–18
d. Wealth ........ 6:19–34
e. Judging ........ 7:1–6

C. Jesus Instructs on Entering the Kingdom ........ 7:7–27
1. "Ask, and It Will Be Given" ........ 7:7–11
2. Golden Rule ........ 7:12
3. Two Ways of Life ........ 7:13,14
4. False and True Teaching ........ 7:15–20
5. True Way into the Kingdom ........ 7:21–23
6. Parable of the Two Builders ........ 7:24–27

D. Response to the Sermon ........ 7:28,29

Part Three: The Power of the King (8:1—11:1)

I. The Demonstration of the King’s Power ........ 8:1–9:34
A. Miracles of Healing ........ 8:1–17
1. The Leper Is Cleansed ........ 8:1–4
2. The Centurion’s Servant Is Healed ........ 8:5–13
3. Peter’s Mother-in-Law Is Healed ........ 8:14–17

B. Demands of Discipleship ........ 8:18–22

C. Miracles of Power ........ 8:23–9:8
1. The Sea Is Stilled ........ 8:23–27
2. Demons Are Cast into Swine ........ 8:28–34
3. The Paralytic Is Forgiven ........ 9:1–8

D. Distinctions of Disciples ........ 9:9–17
1. Matthew Is Called ........ 9:9
2. The Disciples Eat with Sinners ........ 9:10–13

E. The Disciples Do Not Fast ........ 9:14–17
F. Miracles of Restoration ........ 9:18–34
1. Life Is Restored ........ 9:18–26
2. Sight Is Restored ........ 9:27–31
3. Speech Is Restored ........ 9:32–34

II. The Delegation of the King’s Power ........ 9:35—11:1
A. The Need for Delegation of Power ........ 9:35–38
B. The Twelve Apostles Are Sent ........ 10:1–4
C. The Twelve Apostles Are Instructed ........ 10:5–11:1

Part Four: The Progressive Rejection of the King (11:2—16:12)

I. The Commencement of Rejection ........ 11:2–30
A. Rejection of John the Baptist ........ 11:2–15
B. Rejection by Jesus’ Generation ........ 11:16–19
C. Rejection of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum ........ 11:20–24
D. Invitation to Come to Jesus ........ 11:25–30

II. The Rejection of Christ by the Pharisees ........ 12:1–50
A. Controversy over Sabbath-Labor ........ 12:1–8
B. Controversy over Sabbath-Healing ........ 12:9–13
C. Pharisees Plan to Destroy Christ ........ 12:14–21
D. Pharisees Blaspheme the Holy Spirit ........ 12:22–37
E. Pharisees Commit the Unpardonable Sin ........ 12:31–37
F. Pharisees Demand a Sign ........ 12:38–45
G. Jesus and the True Brethren ........ 12:46–50

III. The Consequences of the Rejection ........ 13:1–53
A. Parables Spoken to the Multitude ........ 13:1–35
1. Parable of the Soils ........ 13:1–9
2. Parable of the Wheat and Tares ........ 13:24–30
3. Parable of the Mustard Seed ........ 13:31,32
4. Parable of the Leaven ........ 13:33
5. Parable of the Tares Explained ........ 13:36–43
6. Parable of the Hidden Treasure ........ 13:44
7. Parable of the Pearl of Great Price ........ 13:45,46
8. Parable of the Dragnet ........ 13:47–50
9. Parable of the Householder ........ 13:51–53

IV. The Continuing Rejection of the King ........ 13:54—16:12
A. Rejection at Nazareth ........ 13:54–58
B. Rejection by Herod ........ 14:1–12
1. Present Response to Jesus ........ 14:1,2
2. Account of the Murder of John the Baptist ........ 14:3–12
C. Rejection by Scribes and Pharisees ........ 15:1–20
D. Rejection by Pharisees ........ 16:1–12
1. Debate over a Sign from Heaven ........ 16:1–4
2. Withdrawal of Jesus ........ 16:5–12

Part Five: The Preparation of the King’s Disciples (16:13—20:28)

I. The Revelation in View of Rejection ........ 16:13—17:13
A. Revelation of the Person of the King ........ 16:13–17
B. Revelation of the Program of the King ........ 16:18—17:13
1. Revelation of the Church ........ 16:18–20
2. Revelation of Jesus’ Death ........ 16:21–23
3. Revelation of Jesus’ Reward ........ 16:24–28
4. The Prophecy of the Second Coming ........ 16:27,28
5. The Transfiguration ........ 17:1–13

II. The Instruction in View of Rejection ........ 17:14—20:28
A. Instruction About Faith ........ 17:14–21
B. Instruction About Jesus’ Death ........ 17:22,23
C. Instruction About Taxes ........ 17:24–27
D. Instruction About Humility ........ 18:1–5
E. Instruction About Causing Offense ........ 18:6–14
1. Punishment of Offenders ........ 18:6–9
2. Parable of the Lost Sheep ........ 18:10–14
F. The Offended Brother ........ 18:15–35
G. Instruction About Divorce ........ 19:1–12
H. Instruction About Children ........ 19:13–15
I. Rich Young Ruler ........ 19:16–30
1. The Apostles’ Reward ........ 19:27–30
2. Parable of the Laborers ........ 20:1–16
J. Instruction About Jesus’ Death ........ 20:17–19
K. Instruction About Ambition ........ 20:20–28

Part Six: The Presentation and Rejection of the King (20:29—27:66)

I. The Blind Men Recognize the King ........ 20:29–34

II. The Public Presentation of the King ........ 21:1–17
A. The Triumphal Entry ........ 21:1–11
B. The Cleansing of the Temple ........ 21:12–17

III. The Nation Rejects the King ........ 21:18—22:46
A. Cursing of the Fig Tree ........ 21:18–22
B. Conflict with Priests and Elders ........ 21:23–46
1. Question of Jesus’ Authority ........ 21:23–27
2. Parable of the Two Sons ........ 21:28–32

3. Parable of the Landowner ........ 21:33–46
4. Parable of the Marriage Feast ........ 22:1–14

C. Conflict with Pharisees and Herodians ........ 22:15–22
D. Conflict with Sadducees ........ 22:23–33
E. Conflict with Pharisees ........ 22:34–46
1. The Greatest Commandment ........ 22:34–40
2. The Son of David ........ 22:41–46

IV. The King Rejects the Nation ........ 23:1–39
A. Jesus Characterizes the Pharisees ........ 23:1–12
B. Jesus Condemns the Pharisees ........ 23:13–36
C. Jesus Laments over Jerusalem ........ 23:37–39

V. The Predictions of the King’s Second Coming ........ 24:1—25:46
A. The Temple to Be Destroyed ........ 24:1,2
B. The Disciples’ Two Questions: “When?” and “What?” ........ 24:3
C. Jesus Answers the “What?” ........ 24:4–31
1. The Tribulation ........ 24:4–26
2. The Second Coming ........ 24:27–31
D. Jesus Answers the “When?” ........ 24:32–51
1. Parable of the Fig Tree ........ 24:32–35
2. Illustration of the Days of Noah ........ 24:36–39
3. Illustration of the Two Servants ........ 24:45–51
E. Jesus Predicts Judgment at His Coming ........ 25:1–46
1. Parable of the Ten Virgins ........ 25:1–13
2. Parable of the Talents ........ 25:14–30
3. Judgment of the Gentiles ........ 25:31–46

VI. The Passion of the King ........ 26:1—27:66
A. The Religious Leaders Plot to Kill Jesus ........ 26:1–5
B. Mary Anoints Jesus for Burial ........ 26:6–13
C. Judas Agrees to Betray Jesus ........ 26:14–16
D. The Disciples Celebrate the Passover ........ 26:17–35
1. The Passover Is Prepared ........ 26:17–19
2. The Passover Is Celebrated ........ 26:20–25
3. The Lord’s Supper Is Instituted ........ 26:26–30
4. Peter’s Denial Is Predicted ........ 26:31–35
E. Jesus Is Arrested in Gethsemane ........ 26:36–56
1. Jesus’ Betrayal and Arrest ........ 26:47–56
F. Jesus Is Tried ........ 26:57—27:26
1. The Trial Before Caiaphas ........ 26:57–75
a. Two False Witnesses ........ 26:57–61
b. Three Denials of Peter ........ 26:69–75
2. The Trial Before Pilate ........ 27:1–26
a. Jesus Is Delivered to Pilate ........ 27:1,2
b. Judas Repents ........ 27:3–10
c. Jesus Is Examined ........ 27:11–14
d. Barabbas Is Freed ........ 27:15–26
G. Jesus Is Crucified ........ 27:27–56
1. Jesus Is Scourged ........ 27:27–31
2. Jesus Is Led to Golgotha ........ 27:32,33
3. Jesus Is Crucified ........ 27:34–44
4. Jesus Dies ........ 27:45–50
5. Signs Accompanying Jesus’ Death ........ 27:51–56
H. Jesus Is Buried ........ 27:57–66

Part Seven: The Proof of the King (28:1–20)
I. The Empty Tomb ........ 28:1–8
II. The Appearance of Jesus to the Women ........ 28:9,10
III. The Bribery of the Soldiers ........ 28:11–15
IV. The Appearance of Jesus to the Disciples ........ 28:16,17
V. The Great Commission ........ 28:18–20

The Gospel According To

Mark

The Book Of Mark

The message of Mark’s gospel is captured in a single verse: “For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give His life a ransom for many” (10:45). Chapter by chapter, the book unfolds the dual focus of Christ’s life: service and sacrifice.

Mark portrays Jesus as a Servant on the move, instantly responsive and the will of the Father. By preaching, teaching, and healing, He ministers to the needs of others even to the point of death. After the resurrection, He commissions His followers to continue His work in His power—servants following in the steps of the perfect Servant.

The ancient title for this gospel was Kata Markon, “According to Mark.” The author is best known by his Latin name Marcus, but in Jewish circles he was called by his Hebrew name John, Acts 12:12, 25 and 15:37 refer to him as “John, whose surname was Mark.”

The Author Of Mark

Mary had a large house that was used as a meeting place for believers in Jerusalem. Peter apparently went to this house often because the servant girl recognized his voice at the gate (Acts 12:13–16). Barnabas was Mark’s cousin (Col. 4:10), but Peter may have been the person who led him to Christ (Peter called him “Mark my son,” 1 Pet. 5:13). It was this close association with Peter that lent apostolic authority to Mark’s gospel, since Peter was evidently Mark’s primary source of information. It has been suggested that Mark was referring to himself in his account of “a certain young man” in Gethsemane (14:51, 52). Since all the disciples had abandoned Jesus (14:50), this little incident may have been a firsthand account.

Barnabas and Saul took Mark along with them when they returned from Jerusalem to Antioch (Acts 12:25) and again when they left on the first missionary journey (Acts 13:5). However, Mark left early and returned to Jerusalem (Acts 13:13). When Barnabas wanted to bring Mark on the second missionary journey, Paul’s refusal led to a disagreement. The result was that Barnabas took Mark to Cyprus and Paul took Silas through Syria and Cilicia (Acts 15:36–41). Nevertheless, Mark was with Paul during his first Roman imprisonment (Col. 4:10; Philem. 24). About twelve years later, so there must have been a reconciliation, for in fact at the end of his life Paul sent for Mark, saying, “he is useful to me for ministry” (2 Tim. 4:11). The early church uniformly attested that Mark wrote this gospel. Papias, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen are among the church fathers who affirmed Marcan authorship.

The Time Of Mark

Many scholars believe that Mark was the first of the four gospels, but there is uncertainty over its date. Because of the prophecy about the destruction of the temple (13:2), it should be dated before A.D. 70, but early traditions disagree as to whether it was written before or after the martyrdom of Peter (c. A.D. 64). The probable range for this book is A.D. 55–65.

Mark was evidently directed to a Roman readership and early tradition indicates that it originated in Rome. This may be why Mark omitted a number of items that would not have been meaningful to Gentiles, such as the genealogy of Christ, fulfilled prophecy, references to the Law, and certain Jewish customs that are found in other gospels. Mark interpreted Aramaic words (3:17; 5:41; 7:34; 15:22) and used a number of Latin terms (12:42; 15:16, 39), Greek equivalents of which appear in Matthew.

The Christ Of Mark

The Lord is presented as an active, compassionate, and obedient Servant who constantly ministers to the physical and spiritual needs of others. Because this is the story of a Servant, Mark omits Jesus’ ancestry and birth and moves right into His busy public ministry. The distinctive word of this book is euthus, translated “immediately” or “straightway,” and it appears often in this compact gospel (forty-two times) than in the rest of the New Testament. Christ is constantly moving toward a goal that is hidden to almost all. Mark clearly shows the power and authority of this unique Servant, identifying Him as none less than the Son of God (1:1, 1:11; 3:11; 5:7; 9:7; 13:32; 14:61; 15:39).

Keys To Mark

Key Word: Jesus the Servant—Even in the first verse it is obvious that this gospel centers on the person and mission of the Son of God. Mark’s theme is captured well in 10:45 because Jesus is portrayed as the Servant and as the Redeemer of men (cf. Phil. 2:5–11). Like the other gospels, Mark is not a biography but a topical narrative. Mark juxtaposes Christ’s teachings and works to show how they authenticate each other. Miracles are predominant in this book (there are eighteen), and they are used to demonstrate not only the power of Christ but also His compassion. Mark shows his Gentile readers how the Son of God—rejected by His own people—achieved ultimate victory through apparent defeat. There was no doubt evangelistic purpose behind this gospel as Mark directed his words to a gentile audience that knew little about Old Testament theology.

Key Verses: Mark 10:43–45 and 8:34–37— “Yet it shall not be so among you; but whoever desires to become great among you shall be your servant. And whoever of you desires to be first shall be slave of all. For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give His life a ransom for many” (10:43–45).

“And when He had called the people to Him, with His disciples also, He said to them, ‘Whoever desires to come after Me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow Me. For whoever desires to save his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life for My sake and the gospel’s will save it. For what will it profit a man if he gains the whole world, and loses his own soul? Or what will a man give in exchange for his soul?’” (8:34–37).

Key Chapter: Mark 8—As in Matthew, Mark’s gospel contains a pivotal chapter showing the change of emphasis in Jesus’ ministry. In Matthew, this chapter is 12; in Mark it is chapter 8. The transition centers in Peter’s confession, “You are the Christ.” This confession marks a new phase in both the content and the course of Jesus’ ministry. Until this point He has sought to validate His claims as Messiah. But now He begins to fortify His men for His forthcoming suffering and death at the hands of the religious leaders. Jesus’ steps begin to take Him daily closer to Jerusalem—the place where the Perfect Servant will demonstrate the full extent of His servanthood.

Mark, the shortest and simplest of the four gospels, gives a crisp and fast-moving look at the life of Christ. With few comments, Mark lets the narrative speak for itself as it tells the story of the Servant who constantly ministers to others through preaching, teaching, healing, and ultimately, His own death. Mark traces the steady building of hostility and opposition to Jesus as He resolutely moves toward the fulfillment of His earthly mission. Almost forty percent of the gospel is devoted to a detailed account of the last eight days of Jesus’ life, climaxing in His resurrection. The Lord is vividly portrayed in this book in two parts: to serve (1–10); to sacrifice (11–16).

To Serve (1–10): Mark passes over both the birth and early years of Jesus’ life and begins with the events that immediately precede the inauguration of His public ministry—His baptism by John and His temptation by Satan (1:1–13). The first four chapters emphasize the words of the Servant while chapters 5–7 accent His works. However, in both sections there is a frequent alternation between Christ’s messages and miracles in order to reveal His person and power. Though He has come to serve others, Jesus’ authority prevails over many realms.

Although Jesus has already been teaching and training His disciples (see ch. 4), His ministry with the religious leaders are growing more antagonistic, and Christ’s “hour” is only about six months away. Mark 8:31 is the pivotal point in the gospel as the Son of Man speaks clearly to His disciples about His coming death and resurrection. The disciples struggle with this difficult revelation, but Jesus’ steps head inexorably to Jerusalem.

To Sacrifice (11–16): Mark allots a disproportionate space to the last weeks of the Servant’s redemptive ministry. During the last seven days in Jerusalem, hostility from the chief priests, scribes, elders, Pharisees, Herodians, and Sadducees reaches crisis proportions as jesus publicly refutes their arguments in the temole. After His last supper with the disciples, jesus offers no resistance to His arrest, abuse, and agonizing crucifixion.His willigness to bear countless humans sins is the epitome servanthood.

Outline of Mark

Part One: The Presentation of the Servant (1:1–2:12)

I. The Forerunner of the Servant ........ 1:1–8
II. The Baptism of the Servant ........ 1:9–11
III. The Temptation of the Servant ........ 1:12, 13
IV. The Mission of the Servant ........ 1:14–2:12
A. The Work of the Servant ........ 1:14, 15
B. The First Disciples Are Called ........ 1:16–20
C. The First Miracles Are Performed ........ 1:21–2:12
1. Demons Are Cast Out ........ 1:21–28
2. Peter’s Mother-in-Law Is Healed ........ 1:29–31
3. Many Healings ........ 1:32–39
4. A Leper Is Cleansed ........ 1:40–45
5. A Paralytic Is Healed ........ 2:1–12

Part Two: The Opposition to the Servant (2:13–8:26)

I. The Initial Opposition to the Servant 2:13–3:35
A. Controversy over Jesus’ Friendship with Sinners ........ 2:13–22
1. Call of Matthew ........ 2:13–17
2. Parable of Cloth and Wineskins ........ 2:18–22
B. Controversy over Sabbath-Work ........ 2:23–28
C. Controversy over Sabbath-Healing ........ 3:1–6
D. Pharisees Counsel to Destroy Jesus ........ 3:6
E. The Service of the Twelve ........ 3:7–19
F. Opposition of His Friends ........ 3:20–30
G. Scribes Commit the Unpardonable Sin ........ 3:22–30
H. New Relationships Are Defined ........ 3:31–35

II. The Parables of the Servant ........ 4:1–34
A. Parable of the Soils ........ 4:1–20
B. Parable of the Growing Seed ........ 4:26–29
C. Parable of the Mustard Seed ........ 4:30–34

III. The Miracles of the Servant ........ 4:35–5:43
A. The Sea Is Stilled ........ 4:35–41
B. Demons Are Cast into Swine ........ 5:1–20
C. Jairus Pleads for His Daughter ........ 5:21–24
D. A Woman with Issue Is Healed ........ 5:25–34
E. Jairus’s Daughter Is Healed ........ 5:35–43

IV. The Growing Opposition to the Servant ........ 6:1–8:26
A. Jesus Is Rejected at Nazareth ........ 6:1–6
B. Twelve Are Sent to Serve ........ 6:7–13
C. John the Baptist Is Murdered ........ 6:14–29
D. Twelve Return ........ 6:30–32
E. Five Thousand Are Fed ........ 6:33–44
F. Jesus Walks on Water ........ 6:45–52
G. Jesus Heals at Gennesaret ........ 6:53–56
H. Pharisees and Scribes Oppose ........ 7:1–23
I. Withdrawal to the Coasts ........ 7:24–8:26
1. Syro-Phoenician’s Daughter Is Healed ........ 7:24–30
2. Deaf and Dumb Man Is Healed ........ 7:31–37
3. Four Thousand Are Fed ........ 8:1–9
4. Pharisees Seek a Sign ........ 8:10–13
5. Disciples Do Not Understand ........ 8:14–21
6. A Blind Man Is Healed ........ 8:22–26

Part Three: The Instruction by the Servant (8:27–10:52)

I. Peter’s Confession of Christ ........ 8:27–33
II. Cost of Discipleship ........ 8:34–38
III. The Transfiguration ........ 9:1–14–29
IV. Demon-Possessed Son Is Delivered ........ 9:14–29
V. Jesus Foretells His Death ........ 9:30–32
VI. Jesus Teaches to Prepare the Disciples ........ 9:33–10:45
A. Attitude of Servanthood ........ 9:33–41
B. Warning About Hell ........ 9:42–50
C. Marriage and Divorce ........ 10:1–12
D. Children and the Kingdom ........ 10:13–16
E. Wealth ........ 10:17–31
1. Rich Young Ruler ........ 10:17–22
2. Difficulty of Riches ........ 10:23–31
F. Coming Crucifixion ........ 10:32–34
“Whoever Desires to Become Great” ........ 10:35–45
VII. Blind Bartimaeus Is Healed ........ 10:46–52

Part Four: The Rejection of the Servant (11:1–15:47)

I. The Formal Presentation of the Servant ........ 11:1–19
A. The Triumphal Entry ........ 11:1–11
B. A Fig Tree Is Cursed ........ 11:12–14
C. The Temple Is Cleansed ........ 11:15–19

II. The Instruction on Prayer ........ 11:20–26
A. Power of Faith ........ 11:20–24
B. Necessity of Forgiveness ........ 11:25, 26

III. The Opposition by the Leaders ........ 11:27–12:44
A. Question of Authority ........ 11:27–33
B. Parable of the Vineyard Owner ........ 12:1–12
C. Question of Taxes ........ 12:13–17
D. Question of the Resurrection ........ 12:18–27
E. Question of the Greatest Commandment ........ 12:28–34
F. Jesus Questions the Leaders ........ 12:35–37
G. Jesus Condemns the Leaders ........ 12:38–40
H. The Widow’s Offering ........ 12:41–44

IV. The Instruction on the Future ........ 13:1–37
A. Questions from the Disciples ........ 13:1–4
B. The Tribulation ........ 13:5–23
C. The Second Coming ........ 13:24–27
D. Parable of the Fig Tree ........ 13:28–31
E. Exhortation to Watch ........ 13:32–37

V. The Passion of the Servant ........ 14:1–15:47
A. Leaders Plot to Kill Jesus ........ 14:1, 2
B. Mary Anoints Jesus ........ 14:3–9
C. Judas Plans to Betray Jesus ........ 14:10, 11
D. The Passover Is Prepared ........ 14:12–16
E. The Passover Is Celebrated ........ 14:17–21
F. The Lord’s Supper Is Instituted ........ 14:22–26
G. Jesus Predicts Peter’s Denial ........ 14:27–31
H. Jesus Prays in Gethsemane ........ 14:32–42
I. Judas Betrays Jesus ........ 14:43–52
J. The Sanhedrin Tries Jesus ........ 14:53–65
K. Peter Denies Jesus ........ 14:66–72
L. Jesus Is Tried ........ 15:1–15
M. Jesus Is Crucified ........ 15:21–41
N. Jesus Is Buried ........ 15:42–47

Part Five: The Resurrection of the Servant (16:1–20)

I. The Resurrection of Jesus ........ 16:1–8
II. The Appearances of Jesus ........ 16:9–18
III. The Ascension of Jesus ........ 16:19, 20

THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO

LUKE

THE BOOK OF LUKE

Luke, a physician, writes with the compassion and warmth of a family doctor as he carefully documents the perfect humanity of the Son of Man, Jesus Christ. Luke emphasizes Jesus’ ancestry, birth, and early life before moving carefully and chronologically through His earthly ministry. Growing belief and growing opposition develop side by side. Those who believe are challenged to count the cost of discipleship. Those who oppose will not be satisfied until the Son of Man hangs lifeless on a cross. But the resurrection insures that His purpose will be fulfilled: “to seek and to save that which was lost” (19:10).

Kata Loukan, “According to Luke,” is the ancient title that was added to this gospel at a very early date. The Greek name Luke appears only three times in the New Testament (Col. 4:14; 2 Tim. 4:11; Philem. 24).

THE AUTHOR OF LUKE

It is evident from the prologues to Luke and Acts (Luke 1:1–4; Acts 1:1–3) that the two books were originally written to Theophilus (“lover of God”) and that Luke is the author of both volumes (“The former account”). Acts begins with a summary of Luke and continues the story from where the Gospel of Luke concludes. The style and language of both books are quite similar. The “we” portions of Acts (Acts 16:1–17; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) reveal that the author was a close associate and traveling companion of Paul. Because all but two of Paul’s associates are named in the third person, the list can be narrowed to Titus and Luke. Titus has never been seriously regarded as a possible author of Acts, and Luke best fits the requirements. He was with Paul during his first Roman imprisonment, and Paul referred to him as “Luke the beloved physician” (Col. 4:14; cf. Philem. 24). During his second Roman imprisonment, Paul wrote “Only Luke is with me” (2 Tim. 4:11), an evidence of Luke’s loyalty to the apostle in the face of profound danger.

Luke may have been a Hellenistic Jew, but it is more likely that he was a Gentile (this would make him the only gentile contributor to the New Testament). In Colossians 4:10–14, Paul lists three fellow workers who are “of the circumcision” (vv. 10, 11) and then includes Luke’s name with two Gentiles (vv. 12–14). Luke’s obvious skill with the Greek language and his phrase “their own language” in Acts 1:19 also imply that he was not Jewish. It has been suggested that Luke may have been a Greek physician to a Roman family with whom a poor man was set free and given Roman citizenship. Another guess is that he was the “brother” referred to in Second Corinthians 8:18, 19. Ancient traditions (including the Muratorian Fragment, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome) strongly support Luke as the author of Luke and Acts. Tradition also says that Luke was from Syrian Antioch, remained unmarried, and died at the age of eighty-four.

THE TIME OF LUKE

Luke was not an eyewitness of the events in his gospel, but he relied on the testimony of eyewitnesses and written sources (1:1–4). He carefully investigated and arranged his material and presented it to Theophilus (“Friend of God”). The title “most excellent,” or “most noble” (see Acts 23:26; 24:3; 26:25), indicates that Theophilus was a man of high social standing. He probably assumed responsibility for publishing Luke and Acts so that they would be available to Gentile readers. Luke translates Aramaic terms with Greek words and explains Jewish customs and geography to make his gospel more intelligible to his original Greek readership. During Paul’s imprisonment at Caesarea, Luke may have traveled in Palestine to gather information from eyewitnesses of Jesus’ ministry. The date of this gospel depends on that of Acts, since this was the first volume (see “The Time of Acts”). If Luke was written during Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome it would be dated in the early 60s. However, it may have been given final form in Greece. In all probability, its publication preceded the destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70).

THE CHRIST OF LUKE

The humanity and compassion of Jesus are repeatedly stressed in Luke’s gospel. Luke gives the most complete account of Christ’s ancestry, birth, and development. He is the ideal Son of Man who identified with the sorrow and plight of sinful men in order to carry our sorrows and offer us the priceless gift of salvation. Jesus alone fulfills the Greek ideal of human perfection.

KEYS TO LUKE

Key Word: Jesus the Son of Man—Luke clearly states his purpose in the prologue to his gospel: “to write to you an orderly account, that you may know the certainty of those things in which you were instructed” (1:3, 4). Luke wanted to create an accurate, chronological and comprehensive account of the unique life of Jesus the Christ to strengthen the faith of both gentile believers and to encourage saving faith among nonbelievers. Luke also had another purpose, and that was to was to show that Christ was not only divine but also human. Luke portrays Christ in His fullest humanity by devoting more of his writing to Christ's feelings and humanity than any other gospel.

Key Verses: Luke 1:3, 4 and 19:10-"It seemed good to me also, having had perfect understanding of all things from the very first, to write to you an orderly account, most excellent Theophilus, that you may know the certainty of those things in which you were instructed" (1:3, 4).
"For the Son of Man has come to seek and to save that which was lost" (19:10).

Key Chapter: Luke 15-Captured in the three parables of the Lost Sheep, Lost Coin, and Lost Son is the crux of this gospel: that God through Christ has come to seek and to save that which was lost.

SURVEY OF LUKE

Outline of Luke

Part One: The Introduction of the Son of Man (1:1—4:13)

I. The Purpose and Method of Luke’s Gospel ........ 1:1–4

II. The Events Preceding Christ’s Birth ........ 1:5–56

A. John the Baptist’s Birth Is Foretold ........ 1:5–25
    1. Zacharias Ministers in the Temple ........ 1:5–10
    2. An Angel Announces the Birth of John the Baptist ........ 1:11–17
    3. Zacharias Is Unable to Speak ........ 1:18–25

B. Jesus the Christ’s Birth Is Foretold ........ 1:26–56
    1. Gabriel Announces Christ’s Birth ........ 1:26–33
    2. Mary Miraculously Conceives ........ 1:34–38
    3. Mary Visits Elizabeth ........ 1:39–56

III. The Events Accompanying Christ’s Birth ........ 1:57–2:38

A. The Birth of John the Baptist ........ 1:57–80
    1. Elizabeth Gives Birth to John ........ 1:57–66
    2. Zacharias Prophesies of John’s Ministry ........ 1:67–80

B. The Birth of Jesus the Christ ........ 2:1–38
    1. Christ Is Born ........ 2:1–7
    2. The Angels Announce Jesus to the Shepherds ........ 2:8–14
    3. The Shepherds Visit Jesus ........ 2:15–20
    4. Christ Is Presented at the Temple ........ 2:21–38
      a. Christ Is Circumcised ........ 2:21
      b. Simeon’s Prophecy ........ 2:22–35
      c. Anna’s Testimony ........ 2:36–38

IV. The Events During Christ’s Childhood ........ 2:39–52

A. Jesus Returns to Nazareth ........ 2:39, 40
B. Jesus Celebrates the Passover ........ 2:41–50
C. Jesus Grows in Wisdom ........ 2:51, 52

V. The Events Preceding Christ’s Presentation ........ 3:1–4:13

A. The Ministry of John the Baptist ........ 3:1–20
B. The Baptism of Christ ........ 3:21, 22
C. The Genealogy of Christ Through Mary ........ 3:23–38
D. The Temptation of Christ ........ 4:1–13

Part Two: The Ministry of the Son of Man (4:14—9:50)

I. The Presentation of Christ ........ 4:14–30

A. Acceptance Throughout Galilee ........ 4:14, 15
B. Rejection at Nazareth ........ 4:16–30

II. The Demonstration of Christ’s Powers ........ 4:31–5:28

A. Demons Are Cast Out ........ 4:31–37
B. Peter’s Mother-in-Law Is Healed ........ 4:38–39
C. Jesus Ministers Throughout Galilee ........ 4:40–44
D. The First Disciples Are Called ........ 5:1–11
E. A Leper Is Cleansed ........ 5:12–15
F. A Paralytic Is Healed ........ 5:16–26
G. Matthew Is Called ........ 5:27, 28

III. The Explanation of Christ’s Program ........ 5:29–6:49

A. Jesus Teaches the Pharisees ........ 5:29–6:11
    1. Jesus Eats with Sinners ........ 5:29–32
    2. Jesus Teaches About Fasting ........ 5:33–35
    3. Parable of the Cloth and Wineskins ........ 5:36–39
    4. Jesus Works on the Sabbath ........ 6:1–5
    5. Jesus Heals on the Sabbath ........ 6:6–11

B. Jesus Teaches the Disciples ........ 6:12–49
    1. Selection of the Twelve Apostles ........ 6:12–19
    2. The Beatitudes ........ 6:20–26
    3. Rules of Kingdom Life ........ 6:27–38
    4. Parable of the Blind Leading the Blind ........ 6:39–45
    5. Parable of the Two Foundations ........ 6:46–49

IV. The Expansion of Christ’s Program ........ 7:1–9:50

A. A Centurion’s Servant Is Healed ........ 7:1–10
B. A Widow’s Son Is Raised ........ 7:11–16
C. Christ Comments on John the Baptist ........ 7:17–35
D. Jesus Praises John ........ 7:24–28
E. Jesus Criticizes His Generation ........ 7:31–35
F. Christ Dines at a Pharisee’s Home ........ 7:36–50
    1. A Woman Anoints Jesus’ Feet ........ 7:36–50

G. The Parable of the Two Debtors ........ 7:41–43
H. Certain Women Minister to Christ ........ 8:1–3
I. Parable of the Soils ........ 8:4–15
J. Parable of the Lamp ........ 8:16–18
K. Christ’s True Brethren ........ 8:19–21
L. The Storm Is Stilled ........ 8:22–25
M. A Woman Is Healed ........ 8:43–48
N. Jairus’s Daughter Is Raised ........ 8:41–42, 49–56
O. Twelve Are Sent to Preach ........ 9:1–6
P. Herod’s Confusion ........ 9:7–9
Q. Five Thousand Are Fed ........ 9:10–17
R. Peter’s Confession of Faith ........ 9:18–20
S. True Cost of Discipleship ........ 9:21–27
T. The Transfiguration ........ 9:28–36
U. Demoniac Son Is Healed ........ 9:37–43
V. Christ Prophesies His Coming Death ........ 9:44–45
W. True Greatness ........ 9:46–50

Part Three: The Rejection of the Son of Man (9:51—19:27)

I. The Increasing Opposition to Christ ........ 9:51–11:54

A. Samaria Rejects Christ ........ 9:51–56
B. True Cost of Discipleship ........ 9:57–62
C. Seventy Disciples Are Sent Out ........ 10:1–24
    1. Mission of the Seventy ........ 10:1–16
    2. Return of the Seventy ........ 10:17–24
D. Lawyer Tests Christ ........ 10:25–37
    1. How to Inherit Eternal Life ........ 10:25–28
    2. Parable of the Good Samaritan ........ 10:29–37
E. Mary and Martha Are Contrasted ........ 10:38–42
F. Christ Teaches on Prayer ........ 11:1–13
    1. The Lord’s Prayer ........ 11:1–4
    2. Parable of the Persistent Friend ........ 11:5–10
    3. Parable of the Good Father ........ 11:11–13
G. Christ Is Rejected by the Religious Leaders ........ 11:14–36
    1. Christ Heals the Demoniac ........ 11:14–16
    2. Christ’s Power Not from Satan ........ 11:15–28
    3. Christ’s Only Sign Is Jonah ........ 11:29–32
    4. Parable of the Lighted Lamp ........ 11:33–36
H. Religious Leaders Are Rejected by Christ ........ 11:37–54
    1. “Woes” on the Pharisees ........ 11:37–44
    2. “Woes” on the Lawyers ........ 11:45–54

II. The Instruction in View of Christ’s Rejection ........ 12:1–19:27

A. Christ Warns About Hypocrisy ........ 12:1–12
B. Christ Warns About Covetousness ........ 12:13–34
    1. Parable of the Rich Fool ........ 12:13–21
    2. Seek the Kingdom of God ........ 12:22–34
C. Christ Warns About the Second Coming ........ 12:35–48
    1. Parable of the Expectant Steward ........ 12:35–40
    2. Parable of the Faithful Steward ........ 12:41–48
D. Christ Warns of the Costs of Discipleship ........ 12:49–53
E. Christ Warns of Not Discerning the Times ........ 12:54–59
F. Christ Teaches on Repentance ........ 13:1–9
G. Christ Heals the Crippled Woman ........ 13:10–17
    1. A Woman Glorifies Christ ........ 13:10–13
    2. The Rulers Criticize Christ ........ 13:14–17
H. Christ Teaches on the Kingdom of Heaven ........ 13:18–21
    1. Parable of the Mustard Seed ........ 13:18, 19
    2. Parable of the Leaven ........ 13:20, 21
I. The Way into the Kingdom ........ 13:22–30
J. Christ Mourns over Jerusalem ........ 13:31–35
K. Christ Teaches the Pharisees ........ 14:1–24
    1. Instruction on the Sabbath ........ 14:1–6
    2. Parable of the Ambitious Guest ........ 14:7–14
    3. Parable of the Great Supper ........ 14:15–24
L. Christ Teaches on Discipleship ........ 14:25–35
    1. Cost of Discipleship ........ 14:25–33
    2. Parable of the Tower ........ 14:28–30
    3. Parable of the King Contemplating War ........ 14:31–33
    4. Parable of the Savoreless Salt ........ 14:34, 35
M. Christ Teaches on Repentance ........ 15:1–32
    1. Parable of the Lost Sheep ........ 15:1–7
    2. Parable of the Lost Coin ........ 15:8–10
    3. Parable of the Lost Son ........ 15:11–32
N. Christ Teaches on Stewardship ........ 16:1–31
    1. Parable of the Unjust Servant ........ 16:1–13
    2. Christ Warns the Pharisees ........ 16:14–17
    3. Christ Teaches on Divorce ........ 16:18
    4. Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus ........ 16:19–31
O. Christ Teaches on Offenses ........ 17:1–10
P. Christ Cleanses Ten Lepers ........ 17:11–19
Q. Christ Teaches on the Second Coming ........ 17:20–37
R. Christ Teaches on Prayer ........ 18:1–14
    1. Parable of the Woman and the Judge ........ 18:1–8
    2. Parable of the Pharisee and the Tax Collector ........ 18:9–14
S. Christ Blesses the Children ........ 18:15–17
T. Christ Teaches on Sacrifice ........ 18:18–30
    1. Rich Young Ruler ........ 18:18–27
    2. Christ Will Reward Sacrifice ........ 18:28–30
U. Christ Foretells His Death and Resurrection ........ 18:31–34
V. Christ Heals Bartimaeus ........ 18:35–43
W. Christ Abides with Zacchaeus ........ 19:1–10
X. Christ Gives the Parable of the Ten Minas ........ 19:11–27

Part Four: The Crucifixion and Resurrection of the Son of Man (19:28—24:53)

I. The Last Week of Christ ........ 19:28–23:56

A. Sunday: The Triumphal Entry ........ 19:28–44
B. Monday: Cleansing the Temple ........ 19:45–48
C. Tuesday: Public Ministry ........ 20:1–22:6
    1. Religious Leaders Question Christ’s Authority ........ 20:1–8
    2. Parable of the Vineyard Owner ........ 20:9–19
    3. Herodians Question Tribute Money ........ 20:19–26
    4. Sadducees Question Resurrection ........ 20:27–38
    5. Christ Questions the Scribes ........ 20:39–47
    6. Christ Teaches on the Widow’s Mites ........ 21:1–4

II. Olivet Discourse ........ 21:5–22:6

    a. The Disciples’ Two Questions — “What?” and “When?” ........ 21:5–7
    b. Signs of Christ’s Coming ........ 21:8–19
    c. Destruction of Jerusalem ........ 21:20–24
    d. The Second Coming ........ 21:25–28
    e. Parable of the Fig Tree ........ 21:29–33
    f. Warning to Watch for His Coming ........ 21:34–38
    g. Judas Agrees to Betray Christ ........ 22:1–6

III. Thursday: Passover and Arrest ........ 22:7–71

    1. The Upper Room Is Prepared ........ 22:7–13
    2. The Passover Is Celebrated ........ 22:14–18
    3. The Lord’s Supper Is Instituted ........ 22:19–20
    4. Christ Predicts His Betrayer ........ 22:21–23
    5. The Disciples Argue over Who Is the Greatest ........ 22:24–30
    6. Christ Predicts Peter’s Denial ........ 22:31–34
    7. Christ Predicts Coming Conflict ........ 22:35–38
    8. Christ Prays in Gethsemane ........ 22:39–46
    9. Judas Betrays Christ ........ 22:47–53

IV. Friday: Trials and Crucifixion ........ 22:54–23:56

    1. Peter Denies Christ ........ 22:54–62
    2. Christ Is Beaten ........ 22:63–65
    3. The Sanhedrin Tries Christ ........ 22:66–71
    4. Pilate Tries Christ ........ 23:1–7
    5. Herod Tries Christ ........ 23:8–12

    6. Pilate Tries Christ Again ........ 23:13–25
    7. Christ Is Crucified ........ 23:26–49
    8. Christ Is Buried ........ 23:50–55
    9. Saturday: In the Grave ........ 23:56

II. The Authentication of Christ ........ 24:1–53

A. The Resurrection ........ 24:1–12
B. Christ Appears on the Road to Emmaus ........ 24:13–35
C. Christ Appears to the Eleven ........ 24:36–53
    1. The Proof of His Resurrection ........ 24:36–43
    2. The Great Commission ........ 24:44–49
    3. The Ascension ........ 24:50–53

The Gospel According To

John

The Book Of John

Just as a coin has two sides, both valid, so Jesus Christ has two natures, both valid, Son of God and Son of Man; John portrays Him in His deity; as the Son of God. John’s purpose is crystal clear: to set forth Christ in His deity in order to spark believing faith in his readers. John’s gospel is topical, not primarily chronological, and it revolves around seven miracles and seven “I am” statements of Christ.

Following an extended eyewitness description of the Upper Room meal and discourse, John records events leading up to the Resurrection, the final climactic proof that Jesus Christ is who He claims to be—the Son of God.

The title of the Fourth Gospel follows the same format as the titles of the synoptic Gospels: Kata Ioannen, “According to John.” As with the others, the word “Gospel” was later added. Ioannes is derived from the Hebrew name Yohanan, “Yahweh Has Been Gracious.”

The Author Of John

Jesus nicknamed John and his brother James, “Sons of Thunder” (Mark 3:17). Their father was Zebedee, and their mother Salome. Jesus served in Galilee and was present at His crucifixion (Mark 15:40, 41). Along with Peter, they followed Jesus diligently among the Galileans who followed John the Baptist until they were called to follow Jesus at the outset of His public ministry (1:19–51). These Galileans were later called to become disciples of the Lord (Luke 5:1–11), and Jesus chose twelve from among them who were “sent” to be apostles (Luke 6:12–16). After Christ’s ascension, John became one of the “pillars” of the church in Jerusalem along with James and Peter (Gal. 2:9). He is mentioned three times by name in Acts (3:1; 4:13; 8:14), each time in association with Peter. Tradition says that John later went to Ephesus (perhaps just before the destruction of Jerusalem). He was eventually exiled by the Romans to the isle of Patmos (Rev. 1:9).

The author of this gospel is identified only as “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (13:23; 19:26; 20:2; 21:7, 20). His knowledge of Palestinian geography and Jewish customs makes it clear that he was a Palestinian Jew, and his meticulous attention to numbers (2:6; 6:13; 19:14, 20:15, 11) and names (1:45; 3:1; 11:1; 18:10) indicates that he was an eyewitness. This fits with his detailed account of the events he described (1:14; 19:35; 21:24, 25). “The disciple whom Jesus loved” was among a group of disciples associated closely with Peter. The synoptic Gospels name this inner circle as Peter, James, and John. Since Peter is separate from the beloved disciple, only James and John are left. James was martyred too early to be the author (Acts 12:1, 2), so the apostle John was the author of this gospel. This conclusion from internal evidence is consistent with the external testimony of the early church. Irenaeus (A.D. 185) was a disciple of Polycarp who was in turn a disciple of the apostle John. In his Against Heresies, Irenaeus bore witness to Johannine authorship of this gospel and noted that John lived until the time of the emperor Trajan (A.D. 98–117). Clement of Alexandria, Theophilus of Antioch, Origen, and others also ascribe this book to John.

The Time Of John

In spite of the strong internal and external testimony supporting Johannine authorship of this gospel, theological bias motivated a number of critics to deny this claim. Until recently it was fashionable to give a late second-century date for this book. The discovery of the John Rylands Papyrus fragment of John 18:31–33, 37, 38 has shown that the Fourth Gospel was in use in Egypt by about A.D. 135, and a considerable period of time must have been required for John’s gospel to be copied and circulated before it reached Egypt, where this papyrus was found.

On the other hand, John was written after most of the synoptic Gospels (c. A.D. 60–68). His familiarity with the topography of Jerusalem (e.g. 5:2; 19:13) does not necessarily require a date before A.D. 70. Since John’s three epistles and Revelation were written after his gospel, the probable range for this work is A.D. 60–90. By this time, John would have been one of the surviving eyewitnesses of the Lord. According to tradition, John wrote this gospel in Ephesus.

The Christ Of John

This book presents the most powerful case in all the Bible for the deity of the incarnate Son of God. “I am called Jesus” (9:11) also “Christ, the Son of the living God” (6:69). The deity of Christ can be seen in His seven “I am” statements: “I am the bread of life” (8:12; 9:5); “I am the light of the world” (10:7, 9); “I am the good shepherd” (11:25); “I am the resurrection and the life” (14:6); “I am the way, the truth, and the life”; “I am the true vine” (15:1–5). The seven signs (1–12) and the five witnesses (5:30–40) also point to His divine character. On certain occasions, jesus equates Himself with the Old testament "I AM," or Yahweh. Some of the most crucial affirmations of His diety are in 1:1; 8:58; 10:30; 14:9; 20:28.

. Thw Word was God (1:1), but the word also became flesh(1:14). The humanity of jesus can be seen in His weariness (4:6), thirst (4:7), dependence (5:19), grief (11:35), troubled soul(12:27), and His anguish and death(19).

Key Word: Believe That Jesus Is the Son of God — The Fourth Gospel has the best statement of purpose in the Bible: “But these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in His name” (20:31). John selected the signs he used for the specific purpose of creating intellectual (“that you may believe”) and spiritual (“that believing you may have life”) conviction about the Son of God. The key verb in John is “believe,” and requires both knowledge (8:32; 10:38) and volition (1:12; 3:19; 7:17).

The predominant theme of this gospel is the dual response of faith and unbelief to the person of Jesus Christ. Those who place their faith in the Son of God have eternal life, but those who reject Him are under the condemnation of God (3:36; 5:24–29; 10:27–29); this is the basic issue. John 1:11, 12 summarizes the responses of accepting or rejecting the Son of God that are traced through the rest of the book. The rejection of Jesus by His own people can be seen over and over in chapters 2 through 19 (“His own did not receive Him”), but John also lists a number of men and women who believed in Him (“But as many as received Him”).

Key Verses: John 1:11–13 and John 20:30, 31—“He came to His own, and His own did not receive Him. But as many as received Him, to them He gave the right to become children of God, even to those who believe in His name: who were born, not of blood, nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, but of God” (1:11–13).

“And truly Jesus did many other signs in the presence of His disciples, which are not written in this book; but these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in His name” (20:30, 31).

Key Chapter: John 3-John 3:16 is without doubt the most quoted and preached verse in all of Scripture. Captured in it is the gospel in its clearest and simplest form: that salvation is a gift of God and is obtainable only through belief. The conversation with Nicodemus and the testimony of John the Baptist provide the setting that clearly points out that being "born again" is the only way to find the "kingdom of God."

Survey Of John

This most unusual gospel, with its distinct content and style, serves as a supplement to the three synoptics. It is easily the simplest and yet the most profound of the gospels, and for many people it is the greatest and most powerful. John writes his gospel for the specific purpose of bringing people to spiritual life through belief in the person and work of Jesus Christ. The five basic sections of this gospel are: the incarnation of the Son of God (1:1–18); the presentation of the Son of God (1:19–4:54); the opposition to the Son of God (5:1–12:50); the preparation of the disciples by the Son of God (13:1–17:26); the crucifixion and resurrection of the Son of God (18:1–21:25).

The Incarnation of the Son of God (1:1–18): This prologue introduces the rest of the book and gives the background for the historical narrative that follows. It dates the nature of Jesus, introduces His forerunner, clarifies His mission, and notes the rejection and acceptance He will find during His ministry.

The Presentation of the Son of God (1:19–4:54): In this section Christ is under careful consideration and scrutiny by Israel. He is introduced by John the Baptist who directs his own disciples to Christ. Shortly the author begins listing the seven signs, which continue through the next section. John carefully selects seven miracles out of the many that Christ accomplished (cf. John 21:25) in order to build a concise case for His deity. They are called signs because they symbolize the life-changing results of belief in Jesus—(1) water to wine: the ritual of law is replaced by the reality of grace (2:1–11); (2) healing the nobleman’s son: the gospel brings spiritual restoration (4:46–54); (3) healing the paralytic: weakness is replaced by strength (5:1–16); (4) feeding the multitude: Christ satisfies spiritual hunger (6:1–13); (5) walking on water: the Lord transforms fear to faith (6:16–21); (6) sight to the man born blind: Jesus overcomes darkness and brings in light (9:1–7); (7) raising of Lazarus: the gospel brings people from death to life (11:1–44). These signs combine to show that Jesus is indeed the Son of God.

The Opposition to the Son of God (5:1–12:50): John’s unusual pattern in these chapters is to record the reactions of belief and disbelief after the performance of one miracle and before the next. In a series of growing confrontations, John portrays the intense opposition that will culminate in the Lord’s final rejection on the cross. Even though many people received Him, the inevitable crucifixion is foreshadowed in several places (2:4, 21, 22; 7:6, 39; 11:51, 52; 12:16).

The Preparation of the Disciples by the Son of God (13:1–17:26): John surveys the incarnation and public ministry of Jesus in twelve chapters, but radically changes pace in the next five chapters to give a detailed account of a few crucial hours. In this clear and vivid recollection of Jesus’ last discourse to His intimate disciples, John captures the Lord’s words of comfort and assurance to a group of fearful and confused followers. Jesus knows that in less than twenty-four hours He will be on the cross. Therefore, His last words speak of all the resources that will be at the disciples’ disposal after His departure. They will be indwelled and empowered by the Triune Godhead. The Upper Room Discourse portrays the message of the epistles in capsule form as it reveals God’s pattern for Christian living. In it, the key themes of servanthood, the Holy Spirit, and abiding in Christ are developed.

The Crucifixion and Resurrection of the Son of God (18:1–21:25): After recording Christ’s high priestly prayer on behalf of His disciples and all who believe in Him “through their word” (17:20), John immediately launches into a dramatic description of Christ’s arrest and trials before Annas, Caiaphas, and Pilate. In His crucifixion, Jesus willingly fulfills John the Baptist’s prophetic words: “Behold! The Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world!” (1:29). John closes his profound gospel with a particularly detailed record of the post-resurrection appearances of Christ. The Resurrection is the ultimate sign that points to Jesus as the Son of God.

The Acts

Of The Apostles

The Book Of Acts

Jesus’ last recorded words have come to be known as the Great Commission: “You shall be witnesses to Me in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth” (1:8). The Book of Acts, written by Luke, is the story of the men and women who took that commission seriously and began to spread the news of a risen Savior to the most remote corners of the known world.

Each section of the book (1–7; 8–12; 13–28) focuses on a particular audience, a key personality, and a significant phase in the expansion of the gospel message.

As the second volume in a two-part work by Luke, this book probably had no separate title. But all available Greek manuscripts designate it by the title Praxeis, “Acts,” or by an expanded title like “The Acts of the Apostles.” Praxeis was commonly used in Greek literature to summarize the accomplishments of outstanding men. While the apostles are mentioned collectively at several points, this book really records the acts of Peter (1–12) and of Paul (13–28).

The Author Of Acts

Acts 1:1 refers Theophilus to “The former account,” that is, the Gospel of Luke. (See “The Author of Luke” for the internal and external support for Lukan authorship of Luke.) Luke’s source “we” sections in this book (16:10–17; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) was his own memory if not some kind of diary. For the remainder of this book, Luke no doubt followed the same careful investigative procedures that he used in writing his gospel (Luke 1:1–4). As a close traveling companion of Paul, Luke had access to the principal eyewitness for chapters 13–28. It is also likely that he had opportunities to interview other key witnesses in Jerusalem as Peter and John for the information in chapters 1–12. Acts 15:23–29 and 23:26–30 indicate that Luke may have used written documents as well.

The Time Of Acts

Suggested dates for the writing of Acts range from A.D. 62 to the middle of the second century. Twentieth-century archaeological discoveries have strikingly confirmed the trustworthiness and precision of Luke as a historian and show that his work should be dated in the first century. Luke’s perplexingly abrupt ending with Paul awaiting trial in Rome has led many to believe that Acts was completed prior to Paul’s trial (A.D. 62). If it was written after this crucial event, Luke would almost certainly have mentioned the outcome. A reasonable explanation of his silence is that Paul had not yet stood before Caesar. Acts begins prior to the persecution under Nero (A.D. 64), Paul’s death (A.D. 68), or the destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70).

The Christ Of Acts

The resurrected Savior is the central theme of the sermons and defenses in Acts. The Old Testament Scriptures, the historical Resurrection, the apostolic testimony, and the convicting power of the Holy Spirit all bear witness that Jesus is both Lord and Christ (see Peter’s sermons in 2:22–36 and 10:34–43). “To Him all the prophets witness that, through His name, whoever believes in Him will receive remission of sins” (10:43). “Nor is there salvation in any other, for there is no other name under heaven given among men by which we must be saved” (4:12).

Keys To Acts

Key Word: The Growth of the Church—While there are four accounts of the life of Jesus, this is the only book that carries on the story from His ascension to the period of the New Testament epistles. Thus, Acts is the historical link between the gospels and the epistles. Because of Luke’s strong emphasis on the ministry of the Holy Spirit, this book could be regarded as “The Acts of the Spirit of God working in and through the Apostles.” As a missionary himself, Luke’s interest in the progressive spread of the gospel is obviously reflected in this apostolic history. Luke was personally involved as a participant in this story, so it was not written from a detached point of view.

From a theological standpoint, Acts was written to trace the development of the body of Christ over the one-generation transition from a primarily Jewish to a predominantly gentile membership. This apologetic work presents Christianity as distinct from Judaism but also as its fulfillment.

Key Verses: Acts 1:8 and 2:42–47—“But you shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be witnesses to Me in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth” (1:8).

“And they continued steadfastly in the apostles’ doctrine and fellowship, in the breaking of bread, and in prayers. Then fear came upon every soul, and many wonders and signs were done through the apostles. Now all who believed were together, and had all things in common, and sold their possessions and goods, and divided them among all, as anyone had need. So continuing daily with one accord in the temple, and breaking bread from house to house, they ate their food with gladness and simplicity of heart, praising God and having favor with all the people. And the Lord added to the church daily those who were being saved” (2:42–47).

Key Chapter: Acts 2—Chapter 2 records the earth-changing events of the Day of Pentecost when the Holy Spirit comes, fulfilling Christ’s promise to wait until the Holy Spirit arrives to empower and direct the witness. The Spirit transforms a small group of fearful men into a thriving, worldwide Church that is ever moving forward and fulfilling the Great Commission.

Survey Of Acts

Luke begins the book of Acts where he left off in his gospel. Acts records the initial fulfillment of the Great Commission of Matthew 28:19, 20 as it traces the beginning and growth of the New Testament church through pattern can be seen in 1:15; 2:41, 47; 4:4; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 13:49; 16:5; 19:20. Acts traces important events in the early history of Christianity from the ascension of Christ to the outpouring of the Holy Spirit to the rapid progress of the gospel, beginning in Jerusalem and spreading throughout the Roman Empire.

Acts is a pivotal book of transitions: from the gospels to the epistles (history), from Judaism to Christianity (religion), from law to grace (divine dealing), from Jews alone to Jews and Gentiles (people of God), and from kingdom to church (program of God).

The three movements in Acts follow its key verse (1:8): witness in Jerusalem (1:1–8:4); witness in Judea and Samaria (8:5–12:25); witness to the end of the earth (13–28).

Witness in Jerusalem (1:1–8:4): After appearing to His disciples for “forty days” (1:3), the Lord tells them to wait in Jerusalem for the fulfillment of His promise concerning the Holy Spirit. Ten days after His ascension, this promise is significantly fulfilled as the disciples are suddenly empowered and filled with the Holy Spirit. The disciples are transformed and filled with courage to proclaim the brand new message of the resurrected Savior. Peter’s powerful sermon, like all the sermons in Acts, is built upon the Resurrection, and 3,000 persons respond with saving faith. After dramatically healing a man who was lame from birth, Peter delivers a second crucial message to the people of Israel resulting in thousands of additional responses. The religious leaders arrest the apostles, and this gives Peter an opportunity to preach a special sermon to them.

The enthusiasm and joy of the infant church are marred by internal and external problems. Ananias and Sapphira receive the ultimate form of discipline because of their treachery, and the apostles are imprisoned and persecuted because of their witness. Seven men, including Stephen and Philip, are selected to assist the apostles. Stephen is brought before the Sanhedrin; in his defense, Stephen surveys the Scriptures to prove that the Man they condemned and killed was the Messiah Himself. Members of the Sanhedrin react to Stephen’s words by dragging him out of the city and making him the first Christian martyr.

Witness in Judea and Samaria (8:5–12:25): Philip goes to the province of Samaria and successfully proclaims the new message to a people hated by the Jews. Peter and John confirm his work and exercise their apostolic authority by imparting the Holy Spirit to these new members of the body of Christ. God sovereignly transforms Saul the persecutor into Paul the apostle to the Gentiles, but He uses Peter to introduce the gospel to the Gentiles. In a special vision Peter realizes that Christ has broken down the barrier between Jew and Gentile. After Cornelius and other Gentiles come to Christ through his preaching, Peter convinces the Jewish believers in Jerusalem that "the Gentiles had also received the word of God" (11:1). Even while experiencing more and more persecution, the church continues to increase, spreading throughout the Roman Empire.

Witness to the End of the Earth (13-28): Beginning with chapter 13, Luke switches the focus of Acts from Peter to Paul. Antioch in Syria gradually replaces Jerusalem as the headquarters of the church, and all three of Paul's missionary journeys originate from that city. The first journey (A.D. 48-49) concentrates on the Galatian cities of Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. After this journey, a council is held among the apostles and elders of the church in Jerusalem to determine that the gentile converts need not submit to the law of Moses. The second mission-ary journey (A.D. 50-52) brings Paul once again to the Galatian churches, and then for the first time on to Macedonia and Greece. Paul spends much of his time in the cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Corinth, and later returns to Jerusalem and Antioch. In his third missionary journey (A.D. 53-57), Paul spends almost three years in the Asian city of Ephesus before visiting Macedonia and Greece for the second time. Although he is warned not to go to Jerusalem, Paul cannot be dissuaded.

It is not long before Paul is falsely accused of bringing Gentiles into the temple. Only the Roman commander's intervention prevents his being killed by the mob. Paul's defense before the people and before the Sanhedrin evokes violent reactions. When the commander learns of a conspiracy to assassinate Paul, he sends his prisoner to Felix, the governor in Caesarea. During his two-year imprisonment there (A.D. 57-59), Paul defends the Christian faith before Felix, Festus, and Agrippa. His appeal to Caesar requires a long voyage to Rome, where he is placed under house arrest until his trial.

Outline of Acts

Part One: The Witness in Jerusalem (1:1–8:4)

I. The Power of the Church ........ 1:1–2:47
A. Prologue to Acts ........ 1:1–7
B. Appearances of the Resurrected Christ ........ 1:3–8
C. Ascension of Christ ........ 1:9–11
D. Anticipation of the Spirit ........ 1:12–14
E. Appointment of Matthias ........ 1:15–26
F. Filling with the Holy Spirit ........ 2:1–4
G. Speaking with Other Tongues ........ 2:5–13
H. Peter Explains Pentecost ........ 2:14–41
I. Practices of the Early Church ........ 2:42–47

II. The Progress of the Church ........ 3:1–8:4
A. Peter Heals the Lame Man ........ 3:1–11
B. Peter’s Second Sermon ........ 3:12–26
C. Peter and John Are Put into Custody ........ 4:1–4
D. Peter Preaches to the Sanhedrin ........ 4:5–12
E. Sanhedrin Commands Peter Not to Preach ........ 4:13–22
F. Apostles’ Prayer for Boldness ........ 4:23–31
G. Early Church Voluntarily Shares ........ 4:32–37
H. Ananias and Sapphira Lie ........ 5:1–11
I. Apostles’ Mighty Miracles ........ 5:12–16
J. Apostles’ Persecution ........ 5:17–42
1. Apostles Are Miraculously Freed from Prison ........ 5:17–28
2. Apostles Preach to the Council ........ 5:29–33
3. Gamaliel’s Advice ........ 5:34–40
4. Apostles Are Beaten ........ 5:41–42
K. Deacons Are Appointed ........ 6:1–7
L. Stephen Is Martyred ........ 6:8–8:1
1. Stephen Is Brought Before the Council ........ 6:9–15
2. Stephen Preaches to the Council ........ 7:1–60
M. Saul Persecutes the Church ........ 8:1–4

Part Two: The Witness in Judea and Samaria (8:5–12:25)

I. The Witness of Philip ........ 8:5–40
A. Philip Witnesses to the Samaritans ........ 8:5–25
B. Philip Witnesses to the Ethiopian Treasurer ........ 8:26–40

II. The Conversion of Saul ........ 9:1–31
A. Saul Is Converted and Blinded ........ 9:1–9
B. Saul Is Filled with the Spirit ........ 9:10–19
C. Saul Preaches at Damascus ........ 9:20–22
D. Saul Witnesses in Jerusalem ........ 9:23–31

III. The Witness of Peter ........ 9:32–11:18
A. Peter Heals Aeneas at Lydda ........ 9:32–35
B. Peter Raises Dorcas at Joppa ........ 9:36–43
C. Peter Witnesses to Cornelius at Caesarea ........ 10:1–11:18
1. Cornelius Sends for Peter ........ 10:1–8
2. Peter Sees the Great Sheet ........ 10:9–23
3. Peter Preaches to the Gentiles ........ 10:24–43
4. Gentiles Are Converted and Speak in Tongues ........ 10:44–48
5. Peter Defends His Ministry ........ 11:1–18

IV. The Witness of the Early Church ........ 11:19–12:25
A. The Witness of the Antioch Church ........ 11:19–30
B. The Persecution by Herod ........ 12:1–25
1. Herod Kills James ........ 12:1,2
2. Peter Is Miraculously Released from Prison ........ 12:3–19
3. Herod Blasphemes and Dies ........ 12:20–25

Part Three: The Witness to the End of the Earth (13:1–28:31)

I. The First Missionary Journey ........ 13:1–14:28
A. Barnabas and Saul Are Sent from Antioch ........ 13:1–3
B. Ministry at Cyprus ........ 13:4–12
1. Preaching in the Synagogues ........ 13:4–5
2. Controversy with Bar-Jesus ........ 13:6–13
C. Ministry at Antioch ........ 13:14–52
1. Paul Preaches on First Sabbath ........ 13:14–43
2. Paul Preaches on Second Sabbath ........ 13:44–52
D. Ministry at Iconium ........ 13:44–50
E. Ministry at Lystra ........ 14:1–20
1. A Lame Man Is Healed ........ 14:6–20
2. Paul and Barnabas Are Deified ........ 14:11–18
3. Paul Is Stoned ........ 14:19, 20
F. Ministry on the Return Trip ........ 14:21–25
G. Report on the First Missionary Journey ........ 14:26–28

II. The Jerusalem Council ........ 15:1–35
A. Debate over Gentiles Keeping the Law ........ 15:1–5
B. Peter Preaches Salvation Through Grace ........ 15:6–11
C. Paul and Barnabas Testify ........ 15:12
D. James Proves Gentiles Are Free from the Law ........ 15:13–21
E. The Council Sends an Official Letter ........ 15:22–29
F. Report to Antioch ........ 15:30–35

III. The Second Missionary Journey ........ 15:36–18:22
A. Contention over John Mark ........ 15:36–41
B. Derbe and Lystra: Timothy Is Circumcised ........ 16:1–5
C. Troas: Macedonian Call ........ 16:6–10
D. Philippi: Extensive Ministry ........ 16:11–40
1. Lydia Is Converted ........ 16:11–15
2. A Spirit of Divination Is Cast Out ........ 16:16–24
3. Philippian Jailer Is Converted ........ 16:25–34
4. Paul Is Released from Prison ........ 16:35–40
E. Thessalonica: “Turned the World Upside Down” ........ 17:1–9
F. Berea: Many Receive the Word ........ 17:10–15
G. Athens: Paul’s Sermon on Mars’ Hill ........ 17:16–34
H. Corinth: One-and-a-Half Years of Ministry ........ 18:1–17
1. Paul Works with Aquila and Priscilla ........ 18:1–5
2. Jews Reject Paul ........ 18:6–8
3. Crispus, the Gentile, Is Converted ........ 18:9–17
4. Gallio Will Not Try Paul ........ 18:12–17
I. Return Trip to Antioch ........ 18:18–22

IV. The Third Missionary Journey ........ 18:23–21:16
A. Galatia and Phrygia: Strengthening the Disciples ........ 18:23
B. Ephesus: Three Years of Ministry ........ 18:24–19:41
1. Apollos Teaches Effectively ........ 18:24–28
2. Disciples of John Receive the Holy Spirit ........ 19:1–7
3. Paul Teaches in Tyrannus’s School ........ 19:8–10
4. Miracles Are Performed at Ephesus ........ 19:11–20
5. Timothy and Erastus Are Sent to Macedonia ........ 19:21,22
6. Demetrius Causes Uproar at Ephesus ........ 19:23–41
C. Macedonia: Three Months of Ministry ........ 19:23–21:1
D. Troas: Eutychus Falls from Loft ........ 20:6–12
E. Miletus: Paul Bids Farewell to Ephesian Elders ........ 20:13–38
F. Tyre: Paul Is Warned About Jerusalem ........ 21:1–6
G. Caesarea: Agabus’s Prediction ........ 21:7–16

V. The Trip to Rome ........ 21:17–28:31
A. Paul Witnesses in Jerusalem ........ 21:17–23:33
1. Paul Conforms to Jewish Customs ........ 21:17–26
2. Paul’s Arrest ........ 21:27–39
3. Paul’s Defense Before the Crowd ........ 21:40–22:23
4. Paul’s Defense Before the Centurion ........ 22:24–29
5. Paul’s Defense Before the Sanhedrin ........ 22:30–23:11
6. Jews’ Plan to Kill Paul ........ 23:12–22
7. Paul’s Rescue ........ 23:23–33

B. Paul Witnesses in Caesarea ........ 23:34–26:32
1. Paul Is Tried Before Felix ........ 23:34–24:27
2. Paul Is Tried Before Festus ........ 25:1–12
3. Paul Is Tried Before Agrippa ........ 25:23–26:32

C. Paul Witnesses in Rome ........ 27:1–28:31
1. Paul’s Witness During the Shipwreck ........ 27:1–44
2. Paul’s Witness on Malta ........ 28:1–15
3. Paul’s Witness in Rome ........ 28:16–31

The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the

Romans

The Book of Romans

Romans, Paul’s greatest work, is placed first among his thirteen epistles in the New Testament. While the four Gospels present the words and works of Jesus Christ, Romans explores the significance of His sacrificial death. Using a question-and-answer format, Paul records the most systematic presentation of doctrine in the Bible. Romans is more than a book of theology; it is also a book of practical exhortation. The good news of Jesus Christ is more than facts to be believed; it is also a life to be lived—a life of righteousness befitting the person “justified freely by [God’s] grace through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus” (3:24).

Although some manuscripts omit “in Rome” in 1:7, 15, the title Pros Romaious, “To the Romans,” has been associated with the epistle almost from the beginning.

The Author of Romans

A critical issue for those studying the Pauline epistles has to do with the question of authorship. This is foundational to an understanding of the epistles. Paul dictated most of his letters to a secretary named Tertius (16:22), who was allowed to add his own greeting.

The problem arises not with the authorship but with the diversity of the epistle. Some Latin (but no Greek) manuscripts omit 15:1–16:24, and the closing doxology (16:25–27) is placed at the end of chapter 14 in some manuscripts. These variations have led some scholars to conclude that the last two chapters were not originally part of the epistle, or that Paul issued it in two editions. However, most scholars believe that chapter 15 fits in logically with the rest of the epistle. There is more debate over chapter 16, because Paul greets by name twenty-six persons in a church he has never visited. Some scholars contend that it was a separate letter, perhaps written to Ephesus, that was appended to this epistle. Such a theory would be surprising, to say the least (nothing but greetings), especially in the ancient world. It is simpler to understand the list of greetings as Paul’s effort at a strange type of Roman church to which he had many friends. Paul met these people in the cities of his missionary journeys. Significantly, the only other Pauline epistle that lists individual greetings was addressed to the Colossians, also a church Paul had never visited. It may be that this portion was omitted from some copies of Romans because it did not seem relevant.

The Time of Romans

Paul did not found the church at Rome, and the tradition that Peter was its founder is contrary to the evidence. It is possible that it began when some of the Jews and proselytes to Judaism who became followers of Christ on the day of Pentecost (cf. Acts 2:10) returned to Rome, but it is more likely that Christians from churches established by Paul in Asia, Macedonia, and Greece settled in Rome and led others to Christ. According to this epistle, Gentiles were predominant in the church at Rome (1:13; 11:13, 28–31; 15:15, 16), but there were also Jewish believers (2:17–3:8; 3:21–4:1; 7:1–14; 14:1–15:12).

Rome was founded in 753 B.C., and by the time of Paul it was the greatest city in the world with over one million inhabitants (one inscription says over four million). It was full of magnificent buildings, but the majority of people were slaves; opulence and squalor coexisted in the Imperial City. The church in Rome was probably composed of believers there were probably numerous, and evidently they met in several places (16:1–16). The historian Tacitus referred to the Christians who were persecuted under Nero A.D. 64 as “an immense multitude.” The gospel filled the great city by the practically defunct polytheism of Roman religion.

Paul wrote Romans in A.D. 57, near the end of his third missionary journey (Acts 18:23–21:14; cf. Rom. 15:19). It was evidently written during his three-month stay in Greece (Acts 20:3–6), more specifically, in Corinth. Paul was staying with Gaius of Corinth (16:23; cf. 1 Cor. 1:14), and he also mentioned “Erastus, the treasurer of the city” (16:23). A first-century inscription in Corinth mentions him: “Erastus, the commissioner of public works, laid this pavement at his own expense.” Paul’s collection of aid from the churches of Macedonia and Achaia for the needy Christians in Jerusalem was complete (15:26), and he was ready to deliver it (15:25). Instead of sailing directly to Jerusalem, Paul avoided a plot by the Jews by first going north to Philippi. He evidently gave this letter to Phoebe from the church at Cenchrea, near Corinth, and she carried it to Rome (16:1, 2).

The Christ of Romans

Paul presents Jesus Christ as the second Adam whose righteousness and substitutionary death have provided justification for all who place their faith in Him. He offers His righteousness as a gracious gift to sinful men, having borne God's condemnation and wrath for their sinfulness. His death and resurrection are the basis for the belivers redemption, justifiation , reconcilation, salvation and glorification.

Keys to Romans

Key Word: The Righteousness of God—The theme of Romans is found in 1:16, 17. God offers the gift of His righteousness to everyone who comes to Christ by faith. Paul writes Romans to reveal God’s sovereign plan of salvation (1–8), to show how Jews and Gentiles fit into that plan (9–11), and to exhort them to live righteous and harmonious lives (12–16). In his sweeping presentation of God’s plan of salvation, Paul moves from condemnation to glorification and from creed to conduct, from precept to practice. Key words, such as righteousness, faith, law, and sin appear at least sixty times in the epistle.

Key Verses: Romans 1:16, 17 and 3:21–25— “For I am not ashamed of the gospel of Christ, for it is the power of God to salvation for everyone who believes, for the Jew first and also for the Greek. For in it the righteousness of God is revealed from faith to faith; as it is written, ‘The just shall live by faith’” (1:16, 17).

“But now the righteousness of God apart from the law is revealed, being witnessed by the Law and the Prophets, even the righteousness of God, which is through faith in Jesus Christ to all and on all who believe. For there is no difference; for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, being justified freely by His grace through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, whom God set forth as a propitiation by His blood, through faith, to demonstrate His righteousness, because in His forbearance God had passed over the sins that were previously committed” (3:21–25).

Key Chapters: Romans 6–8—Foundational to all teaching on the spiritual life is the central passage of Romans 6–8. The answers to the questions of how to be delivered from sin, how to live a balanced life under grace, and how to live the victorious Christian life through the power of the Holy Spirit are all contained here. Many consider this to be the principal passage on conforming to the image of Jesus Christ.

Survey of Romans

The poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge rightly regarded Romans as “the most profound book in existence,” and the commentator Godet called it “the cathedral of the Christian faith.” Because of its majestic declaration of the divine plan of salvation, Martin Luther wrote: “This epistle is the chief part of the New Testament and the very purest gospel. . . . It can never be read and pondered too much, and the more it is dealt with the more precious it becomes, and the better it tastes.” The four Gospels present the words and works of the Lord Jesus, but Romans, the “Gospel According to Paul,” delves more into the significance of His death and resurrection. The theology of Romans is balanced by practical exhortation, because Paul sees the believer’s position as the basis for his practice. The theme of righteousness that runs throughout the book is reflected in the following outline: the revelation of the righteousness of God (1–8); the vindication of the righteousness of God (9–11); the application of the righteousness of God (12–16).

The Revelation of the Righteousness of God (1–8). The prologue (1:1–17) consists of a salutation (1:1–7), a statement of Paul’s desire to minister in Rome (1:8–15), and the theme of the book (1:16, 17). This two-verse theme is the basic text of Romans because it combines the three essential concepts of salvation, righteousness, and faith.

In 1:18–3:20, Paul builds a solid case for the condemnation of all people under the holy God. The Gentiles are without excuse because they have suppressed the knowledge of God they received from nature and their conscience (1:18–32; their seven-step regression is traced in 1:21–31). The Jews are also under the condemnation of God, and Paul overcomes every objection they could raise to this conclusion (2:1–3:8). God judges according to truth (2:2–5), works (2:6–10), and impartiality (2:11–16), and both the moral and religious Jews fail to meet His standard. Paul concludes his discussion of the reasons for the guilt of the Jews by reminding them they do not obey the Law (2:17–29) nor believe the Oracles of God (3:1–8). The divine verdict (3:9–20) is universal: “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God” (3:23).

The section on justification (3:21–5:21) centers on and develops the theme of God’s provision for man’s need. The first eleven verses are the core of the book (3:21–31), revealing that in Christ, God is both Judge and Savior. Justification is by grace (the source of salvation; 3:21–24), by blood (the basis of salvation; 3:25, 26), and by faith (the condition of salvation; 3:27–31).

Chapter 4 illustrates the principle of justification by faith apart from works in the life of Abraham. Justification issues in reconciliation between God and man (5:1–11). It is brought about by the love of God which is causeless (5:6), measureless (5:7, 8), and ceaseless (5:9–11). In 5:12–21 Paul contrasts the two Adams and the opposite results of their acts. The righteousness of the second Adam is imputed to all who trust in Him, leading to reconciliation.

Chapter 6 describes the believer’s relationship to sin: in his position he is dead to the principle of sin (6:1–14) and the practice of sin (6:15–23). The reality of identification with Christ is the basis for the sanctified Christian life. After describing the Christian’s emancipation from the Law (7), Paul looks at the work of the Holy Spirit who indwells and empowers every believer (8:1–17). The next major topic after condemnation, justification, and sanctification is glorification (8:18–39). All Christians can anticipate a time when they will be perfectly conformed to Jesus Christ not only in their position (present) but also in their practice (the future resurrection).

The Vindication of the Righteousness of God (9–11): It appears that God has rejected His people, Israel, but it is really Israel who has rejected her Messiah. God’s rejection of Israel is only partial (there is a spiritual remnant that has trusted in Christ) and temporary (they will be grafted back; 11:23–27). Paul appropriately quotes frequently from the Old Testament in this section, and he emphasizes that God will be faithful to His covenant promises and restore Israel.

The Application of the Righteousness of God (12–16): Paul recognizes that behavior must be built upon belief, and this is why the practical exhortations of this epistle appear after his teaching on the believer’s position in Christ. The salvation described in the first eleven chapters should transform a Christian’s life in relation to God (12:1, 2), society (12:3–21), higher powers (13:1–7), and one’s neighbors (13:8–14). In chapters 14 and 15 the apostle discusses the whole concept of Christian liberty, noting its principles (14:1–13) and its practice (15:1–13). A changed life is not a condition for salvation, but it should be the natural outcome of saving faith. The epistle closes with Paul’s statement of his plans (15:14–33), a long series of personal greetings (16:1–16), and an admonition followed by a doxology (16:17–27).

The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the

Corinthians

The Book of First Corinthians

Corinth, the most important city in Greece during Paul’s day, was a bustling hub of worldwide commerce, degraded culture, and idolatrous religion. There Paul founded a church (Acts 18:1–17), and two of his letters are addressed “To the church of God which is at Corinth.”

First Corinthians reveals the problems, pressures, and struggles of a church called out of a pagan society. Paul addresses a variety of problems in the life-style of the Corinthian church—factions, lawsuits, immorality, questionable practices, abuse of the Lord’s Supper, and spiritual gifts. In addition to words of discipline, Paul shares words of counsel in answer to questions raised by the Corinthian believers.

The oldest recorded title of this epistle is Pros Korinthious A, in effect, the “First to the Corinthians.” The A was no doubt a later addition to distinguish this book from Second Corinthians.

Corinth, the most important city in Greece, was known for its wealth and luxury. The city was famous for its immorality, and the term Korinthiazomai (“to act like a Corinthian”) became a synonym for debauchery and prostitution. In Paul’s day the population of Corinth was approximately 700,000, about two-thirds of whom were slaves. The diverse population produced many philosophical divisions, but Greek philosophy influenced any speculative thought that was there. In spite of these obstacles to the gospel, Paul was able to establish a church in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1–17).

Persecution in Macedonia drove him south to Athens, and from there he proceeded to Corinth. He made tents with Aquila and Priscilla and reasoned with the Jews in the synagogue. Silas and Timothy joined him (they evidently brought a gift from Philippi; 2 Cor. 11:8, 9; Phil. 4:15), and Paul began to devote all his time to spreading the gospel. Paul wrote First and Second Thessalonians from Corinth. Crispus, the ruler of the synagogue, and his household believed in the Lord (Acts 18:8). Paul taught the Word of God in Corinth for eighteen months in A.D. 51 and 52. After Paul’s departure, Apollos came from Ephesus to minister in the Corinthian church (Acts 18:24–28).

The Author of First Corinthians

Pauline authorship of First Corinthians is almost universally accepted. Instances of his individual and belief can be found as early as A.D. 95, when Clement of Rome wrote to the Corinthian church and cited this epistle in regard to their continuing problem of factions among themselves.

The Time of First Corinthians

Corinth was a key city in ancient Greece until it was destroyed by the Romans in 146 B.C. Julius Caesar rebuilt it as a Roman colony in 46 B.C. and it grew and prospered, becoming the capital of the province of Achaia. Its official language was Latin, but the common language remained Greek. In Paul’s day Corinth was the metropolis of the Peloponnesus, since it was strategically located on a narrow isthmus between the Aegean Sea and the Adriatic Sea that connects the Peloponnesus with northern Greece.

Because of its two seaports it became a commercial center, and many small ships were rolled or dragged across the Corinthian isthmus to avoid the dangerous 200-mile voyage around southern Greece. Nero and others attempted to build a canal at the narrowest point, but this was not achieved until 1893. The city was filled with shrines and temples, but the most prominent was the Temple of Aphrodite on top of a 1,800-foot promontory called the Acrocorinthus. Worshipers of the “goddess of love” made free use of the 1,000 Hieroduli (consecrated prostitutes). This cosmopolitan center thrived on commerce, entertainment, vice, and corruption. Travelers came there to spend money on a holiday for morality.

During Paul’s stay in Ephesus on his third missionary journey, he was disturbed by reports from the household of Chloe concerning quarrels in the church at Corinth (1:11). The church sent a delegation of three men (16:17), who apparently brought a letter that requested Paul’s judgment on certain issues (7:1). Paul wrote this epistle as his response to the problems and questions of the Corinthians (he had already written a previous letter; 5:9). It may be that the men who came from Corinth took this letter back with them. Paul was planning to leave Ephesus (16:5–8), indicating that First Corinthians was written in A.D. 56.

The Christ of First Corinthians

This book proclaims the relevance of Christ Jesus to every area of the believer’s life. He “became for us wisdom from God—and righteousness and sanctification and redemption” (1:30), and these are the themes Paul addresses in this epistle.

Keys to First Corinthians

Key Word: Correction of Carnal Living — The basic theme of this epistle is the application of Christian principles to carnality in the individual as well as in the church. The cross of Christ is a message that is designed to transform the lives of believers and make them different as people and as a corporate body from the surrounding world. However, the Corinthians are destroying their Christian testimony because of immorality and disunity. Paul writes this letter as his corrective response to the news of problems and disorders among the Corinthians. It is designed to refute improper attitudes and conduct and to promote a spirit of unity among the brethren in their relationships and worship. Paul’s concern is real and spiritual rather (4:14, 15) is tempered with love, and he wants to avoid visiting them “with a rod” (4:21).

Key Verses: First Corinthians 6:19, 20 and 10:12, 13 — “Or do you not know that your body is the temple of the Holy Spirit who is in you, whom you have from God, and you are not your own? For you were bought at a price; therefore glorify God in your body and in your spirit, which are God’s” (6:19, 20).

“Therefore let him who thinks he stands take heed lest he fall. No temptation has overtaken you except such as is common to man; but God is faithful, who will not allow you to be tempted beyond what you are able, but with the temptation will also make the way of escape, that you may be able to bear it” (10:12, 13).

Key Chapter: First Corinthians 13 — Read at weddings and often the text for sermons, First Corinthians 13 has won the hearts of people across the world as the best definition of “love” ever penned. Standing in stark contrast to the idea that love is an emotion, that one can fall into or fall out of love, this chapter clearly reveals that true love is primarily an action. This is why when true love is primarily an action. This is why when "God so loved the world that He gave."

The Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the

Corinthians

The Book of Second Corinthians

Since Paul’s first letter, the Corinthian church had been swayed by false teachers who stirred the people against Paul. They claimed he was fickle, proud, unimpressive in appearance and speech, dishonest, and unqualified as an apostle of Jesus Christ. Paul sent Titus to deal with these difficulties, and upon his return, rejoiced to hear of the Corinthians’ change of heart. Paul wrote this letter to express his thanksgiving for the repentant majority and to appeal to the rebellious minority to accept his authority. Throughout the book he defends his authority, character, and calling as an apostle of Jesus Christ.

To distinguish this epistle from First Corinthians, it was given the title Pros Korinthious B, “Second to the Corinthians.” The A and B were probably later additions to Pros Korinthious.

The Author of Second Corinthians

External and internal evidence amply support the Pauline authorship of this letter. As with Romans, the problem of Second Corinthians is not the authenticity of the book, but the unity of it. Some scholars have suggested that the letter in its original form ended after chapter 9 and that chapters 10–13 were later added because their tone contrasts with that of chapters 1–9. It is a fact that something changed from a spirit of joy and comfort to a spirit of concern and self-defense pointing to a “seam” between two different letters. Many hypotheses have been advanced to explain the problem, the most popular is that chapters 10–13 belong to a lost letter referred to in 2:4. Several problems arise with these attempts to dissect Second Corinthians. Chapters 10–13 do not fit Paul’s description of the “lost” letter of 2:4 because they are firm but not sorrowful and because they do not refer to the offender about whom that letter was written (2:5–11). Also, this earlier material would have been appended at the beginning of Second Corinthians, not at the end. There is simply no external (manuscripts, church fathers, tradition) or internal basis for challenging the unity of this epistle. The difference in tone between 1–9 and 10–13 is easily explained by the change of focus from the repentant majority to the rebellious minority.

The Time of Second Corinthians

Part of the background of Second Corinthians can be found in “The Time of First Corinthians.” Paul was in Ephesus when he wrote First Corinthians and expected Timothy to visit Corinth and return to him (1 Cor. 16:10–11). Opposition apparently brought Paul a report of the Corinthian church, and Paul made a brief and painful visit to the Corinthians (this visit is not mentioned in Acts, but it can be inferred from 2 Cor. 2:1, 12:14; 13:1, 2). Upon returning to Ephesus, Paul wrote the church to discipline the leader of the opposition (2:1–11; 7:8). Titus carried this letter. Paul, unable to learn the results, went to Troas and then to Macedonia to meet Titus on his return trip (2:12, 13; 7:5–16). Paul was greatly relieved by Titus’s report that the majority of the Corinthians had repented of their rebelliousness against Paul’s apostolic authority. However, a minority of Judaizers still persisted, evidently led by a group of false apostles (10–13). There in Macedonia Paul wrote Second Corinthians and sent it with Titus and another brother (8:16–24). This took place late in A.D. 56, and the Macedonian city from which it was written may have been Philippi when he made his third trip to Corinth (12:14, 13:1, 2; Acts 20:1–3) where he wrote his letter to the Romans

There is an alternate view that the anguished letter of 2:4 and 7:8 is, in fact, First Corinthians and not a lost letter. This would require that the offender of Second Corinthians 2:5-11and 7:12 be identified with the offender of First Corinthians 5.

The Christ of Second Corinthians

Christ is presented as the believers’ comfort (1:5), triumph (2:14), Lord (4:5), light (4:6), judge (5:10), reconciliation (5:19), substitute (5:21), gift (9:15), power (10:7), and power (12:9).

Keys to Second Corinthians

Key Word: Paul’s Defense of His Ministry—The major theme of Second Corinthians is Paul’s defense of his apostolic credentials and authority. This is especially evident in the portion directed to the still rebellious minority (10–13), but the theme of vindication is also clear in chapters 1–9. Certain false apostles had mounted an effective campaign against Paul in the church at Corinth, and Paul was forced to take a number of steps to overcome the opposition. This epistle expresses the apostle’s joy over the triumph of the true gospel in Corinth (1–7), and it acknowledges the godly sorrow and repentance of the bulk of the believers. It also urges the Corinthians to fulfill their promise of making a liberal contribution for the poor among the christians in Judea(8 and 9). This collection would not only assist the poor, but it would also demonstrate the concern of gentile Christians in macedonia and achaia for jewish Christians in Judea, thus displaying the unity of Jews and Gentiles in the body of Christ.

The opposition addressed in chapters 10–13 apparently consists of Jews (Palestinian or Hellenistic; 11:22) who claim to be apostles (11:5; 13; 12:11) but who preach a false gospel (11:4) and are enslaving in their leadership (11:20). Chapters 10–13 are intended to expose these “false apostles” (11:13), and defend Paul’s God-given authority and ministry as an apostle of Jesus Christ.

Key Verses: Second Corinthians 4:5, 6 and 5:17–19
“For we do not preach ourselves, but Christ Jesus as Lord, and ourselves your servants for Jesus’ sake. For it is the God who commanded light to shine out of darkness who has shone in our hearts to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ” (4:5, 6).

“Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation; old things have passed away; behold, all things have become new. Now all things are of God, who has reconciled us to Himself through Jesus Christ, and has given us the ministry of reconciliation, that is, that God was in Christ reconciling the world to Himself, not imputing their trespasses to them, and has committed to us the word of reconciliation” (5:17–19).

Key Chapters: Second Corinthians 8 and 9—Chapters 8 and 9 are really one unit and comprise the most complete revelation of God’s plan for giving found anywhere in the Scriptures. Contained therein are the principles for giving (8:1–6), the purposes for giving (8:7–15), the policies to be followed in giving (8:16–9:5), and the promises to be realized in giving (9:6–15). This collection would not only assist the poor, but it would also demonstrate the concern of gentile Christians in Macedonia and Achaia for Jewish Christians in Judea, thus displaying the unity of Jews and Gentiles in the body of Christ.

Survey of Second Corinthians

Second Corinthians describes the anatomy of an apostle. The Corinthian church has been swayed by false teachers who have stirred the people against Paul, especially in response to First Corinthians, Paul’s disciplinary letter. Throughout this letter (Second Corinthians) Paul defends his apostolic conduct, character, and call.

The three major sections are: Paul’s explanation of his ministry (1–7); Paul’s collection for the saints (8 and 9); and Paul’s vindication of his apostleship (10–13).

Paul’s Explanation of His Ministry (1–7): After his salutation and thanksgiving (1:1–11), Paul comforts in his afflictions and perils (1:1–11), Paul explains why he delayed his planned visit to Corinth. It is not a matter of vacillation: the apostle wants them to have enough time to repent (1:12–2:4). Paul graciously asks them to restore the repentant offender to fellowship (2:5–13). At this point, Paul embarks on an extended defense of his ministry in terms of his message, circumstances, motives, and conduct (2:14–4:6; 10:1–10). He then admonishes the believers to separate themselves from defilement (6:11–7:1), and expresses his comfort at Titus’s news of their change of heart (7:2–16).

Paul’s Collection for the Saints (8 and 9): This is the longest discussion of the principles and practice of giving in the New Testament. The example of the Macedonians’ liberal giving for the needy brethren in Jerusalem (8:1–6) is followed by an appeal to the Corinthians to keep their promise by doing the same (8:7–9:15). In this connection, Paul commends the messengers he has sent to Corinth to make arrangements for the large gift they have promised. Their generosity will be more than amply rewarded by God.

Paul’s Vindication of His Apostleship (10–13): Paul concludes this epistle with a defense of his apostolic authority and credentials that is directed to the still rebellious minority in the Corinthian Church. His meekness in their pres-ence in no way diminishes his authority as an apostle (10). To demonstrate his apostolic creden-tials, Paul is forced to boast about his knowledge, integrity, accomplishments, sufferings, visions, and miracles (11:1-12:13). He reveals his plans to visit them for the third time and urges them to repent so that he will not have to use severity when he comes (12:14-13:10). The letter ends with an exhortation, greetings, and a benediction (13:11-14).

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

GALATIANS

THE BOOK OF GALATIANS

The Galatians, having launched their Christian experience by faith, seem content to leave their voyage of faith and chart a new course based on works—a course Paul finds disturbing. His letter to the Galatians is a vigorous attack against the gospel of works and a defense of the gospel of faith.

Paul begins by setting forth his credentials as an apostle with a message from God: blessing comes from God on the basis of faith, not law. The law declares men guilty and imprisons them; faith sets men free to enjoy liberty in Christ. But liberty is not license. Freedom in Christ means freedom to produce the fruits of righteousness through a Spirit-led life-style.

The book is called Pros Galatas, “To the Galatians,” and it is the only letter of Paul that is specifically addressed to a number of churches “To the churches of Galatia,” (1:2). The name Galatians was given to this Celtic people because they originally lived in Gaul before they moved to Asia Minor.

THE AUTHOR OF GALATIANS

The Pauline authorship of this epistle is virtually unchallenged. The letter itself definitely identifies the author as “Paul, an apostle.” Also in 5:2, we read, “Indeed I, Paul, say to you.” In fact, Paul actually wrote Galatians (6:11) instead of dictating it to a secretary, as was his usual practice.

THE TIME OF GALATIANS

The term Galatia was used in an ethnographic sense (that is, cultural and geographic origin) and in a political sense. The original ethnographic sense refers to the central part of Asia Minor where the Celtic tribes eventually settled after their conflicts with the Romans and Macedonians. Later, in 189 B.C. Galatia came under Roman domination, and in 25 B.C. Augustus declared it a Roman province. The political or provincial Galatia included territory to the south that was not originally considered part of Galatia (for example, the cities of Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe). There are two theories regarding the date and setting of Galatians.

The North Galatian Theory holds that Paul was speaking of Galatia in its earlier, more restricted sense. According to this theory, the churches of Galatia were north of the cities Paul visited on his first missionary journey. Paul visited the ethnographic Galatia (the smaller region) only for the first time on his second missionary journey, probably while he was on his way to Troas (Acts 16:6). On his third missionary journey, Paul revisited the Galatian churches he had established (Acts 18:23) and wrote this epistle either in Ephesus (A.D. 53–56) or in Macedonia (A.D. 56). According to the South Galatian Theory, Paul was referring to Galatia in its civil political sense as a province of Rome. This means that the churches he had in mind in this epistle were in the cities he evangelized during his first missionary journey with Barnabas (Acts 13:13–14:23). This was just prior to the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), so the Jerusalem visit in Galatians 2:1–10 must have been the Acts 11:27–30 famine-relief visit. Galatians was probably written in Syrian Antioch in A.D. 49 just before Paul went to the Council in Jerusalem.
Paul wrote this epistle in response to a report that the Galatian churches were suddenly taken over by the false teaching of certain Judaizers who taught that one must become a Jew before he could become a Christian. They sought to place gentile converts under the requirements of the Mosaic Law (7:1; 4:17, 21; 5:2–12; 6:12–13).

The Christ Of Galatians

Christ has freed the believer from bondage to the law and to sin and has placed him ina position of liberty. The transforming cross provides the believer's deliverance from the curse of sin, law, ans self(1:4, 2:20, 3:13, 4:5, 5:24, 6:14).

KEYS TO GALATIANS

Key Word: Freedom from the Law—This epistle shows that the believer is no longer under the law but is saved by faith alone. It has been said that Judaism was the cradle of Christianity, but also that it was very nearly its grave as well. God raised up Paul as the Moses of the Christian church to deliver them from this bondage. Galatians is the Christian’s Declaration of Independence. The power of the Holy Spirit enables the Christian to enjoy freedom within the law of love.

Key Verses: Galatians 2:20, 21 and 5:1—“I have been crucified with Christ; it is no longer I who live, but Christ lives in me; and the life which I now live in the flesh I live by faith in the Son of God, who loved me and gave Himself for me. I do not set aside the grace of God; for if righteousness comes through the law, then Christ died in vain” (2:20, 21).

“Stand fast therefore in the liberty by which Christ has made us free, and do not be entangled again with a yoke of bondage” (5:1).

Key Chapter: Galatians 5—The impact of the truth concerning freedom is staggering; freedom

must not be used “as an opportunity for the flesh, but through love serve one another” (5:13). This chapter records the power, “Walk in the Spirit” (5:16), and the results, “the fruit of the Spirit” (5:22), of that freedom.

SURVEY OF GALATIANS

The Epistle to the Galatians has been called “the Magna Carta of Christian liberty.” It is Paul’s manifesto of justification by faith, and the resulting liberty. Paul directs his great charter of Christian freedom to a people who are willing to give up the precious liberty they possess in Christ. The oppressive theology of certain Jewish legalizers has been causing the believers in Galatia to trade their freedom in Christ for bondage to the law. Paul writes this forceful epistle to do away with the false gospel of works and demonstrate the superiority of justification by faith. This carefully written polemic approaches the problem from three directions: the gospel of grace defended (1 and 2); the gospel of grace explained (3 and 4); and the gospel of grace applied (5 and 6).

The Gospel of Grace Defended (1 and 2): Paul affirms his divinely given apostleship and presents the gospel (1:1–5) because it has been distorted by false teachers among the Galatians (1:6–10). Paul launches into his biographical argument for the true gospel of justification by faith in showing that he received his message not from men but directly from God (1:11–24). When he submits his teaching of Christian liberty to the apostles in Jerusalem, they all acknowledge the validity and authority of his message (2:1–10). Paul also must correct Peter on the matter of freedom from the law (2:11–21).

The Gospel of Grace Explained (3 and 4): In this section Paul uses eight lines of reasoning to develop his theological defense of justification by faith: (1) The Galatians began by faith, and their growth in Christ must continue to be by faith (3:1–5). (2) Abraham was justified by faith, and the same principle applies today (3:6–9). (3) Christ has redeemed all who trust in Him from the curse of the law (3:10–14). (4) The promise made to Abraham was not nullified by the law (3:15–18). (5) The law was given to drive men to faith, not to save them (3:19–22). (6) Believers in Christ are adopted sons of God and are no longer bound by the law (3:23–4:7). (7) The Galatians must recognize their inconsistency and regain their original freedom in Christ (4:8–20). (8) Abraham’s two sons allegorically reveal the superiority of the Abrahamic promise to the Mosaic Law (4:21–31).

The Gospel of Grace Applied (5 and 6): The Judaizers seek to place the Galatians under bondage to their perverted gospel of justification by law, but Paul warns them that law and grace are two contrary principles (5:1–12). So far, Paul has been contrasting the liberty of faith with the legalism of law; but at this point he warns the Galatians of the opposite extreme of licenser—or antinomianism (5:13–6:10). The Christian is not only set free from bondage of law, but he is also free of the bondage of sin because of the power of the indwelling Spirit. Liberty is not an excuse to indulge in “the deeds of the flesh”; rather, it provides the privilege of bearing the fruit of the Spirit by walking in dependence upon Him. This letter closes with a contrast between the Judaizers—who are motivated by pride and a desire to avoid persecution—and Paul, who has suffered for the true gospel, but boasts only in Christ (6:11–18).

Outline of Galatians

I. The Gospel of Grace Defended ........ 1:1–2:21
A. Introduction ........ 1:1–5
B. Situation: The Ground of Grace ........ 1:6–9
C. Situation: The Departure from Grace ........ 1:10–24
D. Gospel of Grace Is Given by Divine Revelation ........ 1:12–2:9
E. Gospel of Grace Is Approved by Jerusalem Leadership ........ 2:1–10
D. Gospel of Grace Is Vindicated by Rebuking Peter ........ 2:11–21

II. The Gospel of Grace Explained ........ 3:1–4:31
A. Holy Spirit Is Given by Faith, Not by Works ........ 3:1–5
B. Abraham Was Justified by Faith, Not by Works ........ 3:6–9
C. Justification Is by Faith, Not by the Law ........ 3:10–4:31
  1. Christ Redeems Us from the Curse of the Law ........ 3:10–14
  2. Abrahamic Covenant Is Not Voided by the Law ........ 3:15–18
  3. Law Given to Drive Us to Faith ........ 3:19–22
D. Believers Are Free from the Law ........ 3:23–4:11
E. Galatians Receive Blessings by Faith, Not by the Law ........ 4:12–20
F. Law and Grace Cannot Coexist ........ 4:21–31

III. The Gospel of Grace Applied ........ 5:1–6:18
A. Position of Liberty: “Stand Fast” ........ 5:1–12
B. Practice of Liberty: Love One Another ........ 5:13–15
C. Power for Liberty: Walk in the Spirit ........ 5:16–26
  1. Conflict Between the Spirit and the Flesh ........ 5:16–18
  2. “Works of the Flesh” ........ 5:19–21
  3. “Fruit of the Spirit” ........ 5:22–26
D. Performance in Liberty: Do Good to All Men ........ 6:1–10
  1. “Bear One Another’s Burdens” ........ 6:1–5
  2. Do Not Be Weary While Doing Good ........ 6:6–10
E. Conclusion ........ 6:11–18
  1. Motives of the Circumcised ........ 6:11–13
  2. Motives of the Apostle Paul ........ 6:14–18

The Third Epistle Of

JOHN

The Book Of Third John

In First John the apostle discusses fellowship with God; in Second John he forbids fellowship with false teachers; and in Third John he encourages fellowship with Christian brothers. Following his expression of love for Gaius, John assures him of his prayers for his health and voices his joy over Gaius’s persistent walk in truth and for the manner in which he shows hospitality and support for missionaries who have come to his church. The phrase “send them forward on their journey” means to provide help for the missionaries’ endeavors. Included in this help can be food, money, arrangements for documents, and means of travel. By supporting these men who are ministers of Christ, Gaius has become a fellow worker of the truth.

But not everyone in the church feels the same way. Diotrephes’ heart has one hundred and eighty degrees removed from Gaius’s heart. He is no longer living to love. Pride has taken precedence in his life. He has refused a letter John has written for the church and fears that his authority might be superseded by that of the apostle. He also has accused John of evil words and refused to accept missionaries. He forbids others to do so and even puts out of the church they disobey him. John uses this negative example as an opportunity to encourage Gaius to continue his hospitable ways.

Demetrius has a good testimony and may even be one of those turned away by Diotrephes. He is widely known for his good character and his loyalty to the truth. Here he is well commended by John and stands as a positive example for Gaius.

The Greek titles of First, Second, and Third John are Ioannou A, B, and G. The G is gamma, the third letter of the Greek alphabet; Ioannou G means “Third of John.”

The Author Of Third John

The authorship of Second and Third John was considered together because the contents and circumstances of both books are similar (see “The Author of Second John”). Although the external evidence for Second and Third John is limited (there is even less for Third John than for Second John), what little there is consistently points to the apostle John as author. The internal evidence is stronger, and it, too, supports the apostolic origin of both letters.

The Time Of Third John

The parallels between Second and Third John suggest that these epistles were written at about the same time (A.D. 90). Early Christian writers are unified in their testimony that the headquarters of John’s later ministry was in Ephesus, the principal city of the Roman province of Asia (see “The Time of First John”). John evidently commissioned a number of traveling teachers to spread the gospel and to solidify the Asian churches, and these teachers were supported by believers who received them into their homes.

Third John, probably delivered by Demetrius, was occasioned by the report of some of these emissaries (called “brethren” in this letter), who returned to the apostle and informed him of the hospitality of Gaius and the hostility of Diotrephes. The arrogant Diotrephes seized the reins of an Asian church and vaunted himself as its preeminent authority. He maligned John’s authority and rejected the teachers sent out by John, expelling those in his church who wanted to receive them.

Gaius was a common name in the Roman Empire, and three other men by that name are mentioned in the New Testament: (1) Gaius, one of Paul’s traveling companions from Macedonia (Acts 19:29); (2) Gaius of Derbe (Acts 20:4); and (3) Gaius, Paul’s host in Corinth, one of the few Corinthian believers Paul baptized (Rom. 16:23; 1 Cor. 1:14). The Gaius of Third John evidently lived in the province of Asia, where John also ministered.

In verse 9, John alludes to a previous letter that Diotrephes had spurned. This may have been First or Second John, but it is more likely a letter that has been lost or perhaps destroyed by Diotrephes.

The Christ Of Third John

Unlike First and Second John, Third John makes no mention of the name of Jesus Christ. But verse 7 says “they went forth for His name’s sake,” an indirect reference to our Lord (cf. Acts 5:41, where the identical Greek construction is used to refer back to “the name of Jesus” in Acts 5:40). The concept of truth runs throughout this letter, and Christ is the source and incarnation of truth, as is obvious from John’s other writings.

Key Word: Enjoy Fellowship with the Brethren—The basic theme of this letter is to enjoy and continue to have fellowship (hospitality) with fellow believers, especially full-time Christian workers. This is contrasted between the truth and servanthood of Gaius and the error and selfishness of Diotrephes. Moving

3 JOHN

through Third John, five specific purposes can be discerned from its contents: (1) to commend Gaius for his adherence to the truth and his hospitality to the emissaries sent out by John (vv. 1–6); (2) to encourage Gaius to continue his support of these brethren (vv. 6–8); (3) to rebuke Diotrephes for his pride and misconduct (vv. 9–11); (4) to provide a recommendation for Demetrius (v. 12); and (5) to inform Gaius of John’s intention to visit and straighten out the difficulties (vv. 10, 13, 14).

Key Verse: Third John 11—“Beloved, do not imitate what is evil, but what is good. He who does good is of God, but he who does evil has not seen God” (v. 11).

SURVEY OF THIRD JOHN

Third John is the shortest book in the Bible, but it is very personal and vivid. It offers a stark contrast between two men who respond in opposite ways to the itinerant teachers who have been sent out by the apostle. The faithful Gaius responds with generosity and hospitality, but the faithless Diotrephes responds with arrogance and opposition. Thus, John writes this letter to commend Gaius for walking in the truth (vv. 1–8) and to condemn Diotrephes for walking in error (vv. 9–14).

Commendation of Gaius (vv. 1–8): The “el- der” writes to one of his beloved “children”
whose godly behavior has given the apostle great joy (vv. 1–4). The “brethren,” upon returning to John, have informed him of Gaius’s faithfulness, love, and generosity in their behalf. The apostle acknowledges these actions and urges Gaius to continue supporting traveling teachers and mis- sionaries who go out “for His [Jesus’] name’s sake” (vv. 5–8).

Condemnation of Diotrephes (vv. 9–14): The epistle suddenly shifts to a negative note as John describes a man whose actions are diametrically opposed to those of Gaius (vv. 9–11). Diotrephes boldly rejects John’s apostolic authority and refuses to receive the itinerant teachers sent out by the apostle. Diotrephes evidently has been orthodox in his doctrine, but his evil actions indicate a blindness to God in his practice.

By contrast, John gives his full recommenda- tion to Demetrius, another emissary and probably the bearer of this letter to Gaius (v. 12). John expresses his hope of a personal visit in the closing remarks (vv. 13, 14), as he does in Second John.

Outline Of Third John

The commendation of Gaius..............1-8
A. Salutation .............1
B. Godliness Of Gauis..............2-4
C. Generosity of Gaius.......5-8
II. The comendation of Diotrephes.............9-14
A. Pride of Diotrephes.............9-11
B. Praise of Demetrius............12
C. Benediction.........13, 14

THE EPISTLE OF

JUDE

THE BOOK OF JUDE

Fight! Contend! Do battle! When apostasy arises, when false teachers emerge, when the truth of God is attacked, it is time to fight for the faith. Only believers who are spiritually “in shape” can answer the summons. At the beginning of his letter Jude focuses on the believers’ common salvation, but then feels compelled to challenge them to contend for the faith. The danger is real. False teachers have crept into the church, turning God’s grace into unbounded license to do as they please. Jude reminds such men of God’s past dealings with unbelieving Israel, disobedient angels, and wicked Sodom and Gomorrah. In the face of such danger Christians should not be caught off guard. The challenge is great, but so is the God who is able to keep them from stumbling.

The Greek title Iouda, “Of Jude,” comes from the name Ioudas which appears in verse 1. This name, which can be translated Jude or Judas, was popular in the first century because of Judas Maccabaeus (died 160 b.c.), a leader of the Jewish resistance against Syria during the Maccabean revolt.

THE AUTHOR OF JUDE

In spite of its limited subject matter and length, Jude was accepted as authentic and quoted by early church fathers. There may be some older allusions, but undisputed references to this epistle appear in the last quarter of the second century. It was included in the Muratorian Canon (c. a.d. 170) and accepted as part of Scripture by early leaders, such as Tertullian and Origen. Nevertheless, doubts arose concerning the place of Jude in the canon because of its use of the Apocrypha. It was a disputed book in some parts of the church, but it eventually won universal recognition.

The author identifies himself as “a servant of Jesus Christ, and brother of James” (v. 1). This designation, combined with the reference in verse 17 to the apostles, makes it unlikely that this is the apostle Jude, called “Judas the son of James” in Luke 6:16 and in Acts 1:13. This leaves the traditional view that Jude was one of the Lord’s brothers, called Judas in Matthew 13:55 and Mark 6:3 (see “The Author of James”). His older brother James (note his position on the two lists) was the famous leader of the Jerusalem church (Acts 15:13–21) and author of the epistle that bears his name. Like his brothers, Jude did not believe in Jesus before the Resurrection (John 7:1–9; Acts 1:14). The only other biblical allusion to him is in First Corinthians 9:5 where it is recorded that “the brothers of the Lord” took their wives along on their missionary journeys (the Judas of Acts 15:22, 32 may be another reference to him). Extrabiblical tradition adds nothing to our limited knowledge of Jude.

THE TIME OF JUDE

Jude’s general address does not mark out any particular circle of readers, and there are no geographical restrictions. Nevertheless, he probably had in mind a specific region that was being troubled by false teachers. There is not enough information in the epistle to settle the question of whether his readers were predominately Jewish or gentile Christians (there was probably a mixture of both). In any case, the progress of the faith in their region was threatened by a number of apostates who rejected Christ in practice and principle. These proud libertines were especially dangerous because of their deceptive flattery (v. 16) and infiltration of Christian meetings (v. 12). They perverted the grace of God (v. 4) and caused divisions in the church (v. 19).

Jude’s description of these heretics is reminiscent of that found in Second Peter and in several other epistles (see “The Author of Second Peter”). The strong similarity between Second Peter 2:1–3:4 and Jude 4–18 can hardly be coincidental, but the equally obvious differences rule out the possibility that one is a mere copy of the other. It is also doubtful that both authors independently drew from an unknown third source, so the two remaining options are that Peter used Jude or Jude used Peter. Both views have their advocates, and a number of arguments have been raised in support of either side. But two arguments for the priority of Second Peter are so strong that they tip the scales in favor of this position: (1) A comparison of the two books shows that Second Peter anticipates the future rise of apostate teachers (2 Pet. 2:1, 2; 3:3) while Jude records the historical fulfillment of Peter’s words (Jude 4, 11, 12, 17, 18); (2) Jude directly quotes Second Peter 3:3 and acknowledges it as a quotation from the apostles (cf. 1 Tim. 4:1; 2 Tim. 3:1).

Because of the silence of the New Testament and tradition concerning Jude’s later years, we cannot know where this epistle was written. Nor is there any way to be certain of its date. Assuming the priority of Second Peter (a.d. 64–66), the probable range is a.d. 66–80. (Jude’s silence concerning the destruction of Jerusalem does not prove that he wrote this letter before a.d. 70.)

THE CHRIST OF JUDE

In contrast to those who stand condemned by their licentiousness and denial of Christ (v. 4), the believer is “preserved in Jesus Christ” (v. 1). Jude tells his readers to “keep yourselves in the love of God, looking for the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ unto eternal life” (v. 21). But at the same time, the Lord “is able to keep you from stumbling, and to present you faultless before the presence of His glory with exceeding joy” (v. 24).

KEYS TO JUDE

Key Word: Contend for the Faith—This epistle is intensely concerned with the believer’s proper response to that threat. The contents reveal two major purposes: first, to condemn the practices of the ungodly libertines who were infesting the churches and corrupting other believers; and second, to counsel the readers to stand firm, grow in their faith, and contend for the truth. Jude says little about the actual doctrines of these “raging waves of the sea,” but many have held to an antinomian version of Gnosticism (see “The Time of First John”). The readers are encouraged to reach out to those who have been misled by these men.

Key Verses: Jude 3—“Beloved, while I was very diligent to write to you concerning our common salvation, I found it necessary to write to you exhorting you to contend earnestly for the faith which was once for all delivered to the saints” (v. 3).

SURVEY OF JUDE

A surprisingly large number of the Pauline and non-Pauline epistles confront the problem of false teachers, and almost all of them allude to it. But Jude goes beyond all other New Testament epistles in its relentless and passionate denunciation of the apostate teachers who have “crept in unnoticed.” With the exception of its salutation (vv. 1, 2) and doxology (vv. 24, 25), the entire epistle revolves around this alarming problem. Combining the theme of Second Peter with the style of James, Jude is potent in spite of its brevity. This urgent letter has four major sections: purpose of Jude (vv. 1–4); description of false teachers (vv. 5–16); defense against false teachers (vv. 17–23); and doxology of Jude (vv. 24, 25).

Purpose of Jude (vv. 1–4): Jude addresses his letter to believers who are “called,” “sanctified,” and “preserved,” and wishes for them the threefold blessing of mercy, peace, and love (vv. 1, 2). Grim news about the encroachment of false teachers in the churches has impelled Jude to lay aside his commentary on salvation to write this timely word of rebuke and warning (vv. 3, 4). In this view of apostates who “turn the grace of our God into licentiousness” and deny Christ, it is crucial that believers “contend earnestly for the faith.”

Description of False Teachers (vv. 5–16): Jude begins this extended expose of the apostate teachers by illustrating their ultimate doom with three examples of divine judgment from the Pentateuch (vv. 5–7).

Like unreasoning animals, these apostates are ruled by the things they revile, and they are destroyed by the things they practice (vv. 8–10). Even the archangel Michael is more careful in his dealings with superhuman powers than are these arrogant men. He compares these men to three spiritually rebellious men from Genesis (Cain) and Numbers (Balaam and Korah) who incurred the condemnation of God (v. 11). Verses 12 and 13 succinctly summarize their character with five highly descriptive metaphors taken from nature. After affirming the judgment of God upon such ungodly men with a quote from the noncanonical Book of Enoch (vv. 14, 15), Jude catalogs some of their practices (v. 16).

Defense Against False Teachers (vv. 17–23)

This letter has been exposing apostate teachers (vv. 8, 10, 12, 14, 16), but now Jude directly addresses his readers (“But you, beloved, remember” v. 17). He reminds them of the apostolic warning that such men would come (vv. 17–19) and encourages them to protect themselves against the onslaught of apostasy (vv. 20, 21). The readers must become mature in their own faith so that they will be able to rescue those who are enticed or already ensnared by error (vv. 22, 23).

Doxology of Jude (vv. 24, 25)

Jude closes with one of the greatest doxologies in the Bible. It emphasizes the power of Christ to keep those who trust in Him from being overthrown by error.

OUTLINE OF JUDE

I. Purpose of Jude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–4
II. Description of False Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–16

   A. Past Judgment of False Teachers . . . . . . . . 5–7
   B. Present Characteristics of False Teachers . . . 8–13
   C. Future Judgment of False Teachers . . . . . . . 14–16

III. Defense Against False Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . 17–23
IV. Doxology of Jude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 25

The Revelation Of Jesus Christ

Revelation

THE BOOK OF REVELATION

Just as Genesis is the book of beginnings, Revelation is the book of consummations. In it, the divine program of redemption is brought to fruition, and the holy name of God is vindicated before all creation. Although there are numerous prophecies in the Gospels and Epistles, Revelation is the only New Testament book that focuses primarily on prophetic events. Its title means “unveiling” or “disclosure.” Thus, the book is an unveiling of the character and program of God. Penned by John during his exile on the island of Patmos, Revelation centers around the visions and symbols of the resurrected Christ, who alone has authority to judge the earth, to remake it, and to rule it in righteousness.

The title of this book in the Greek text is Apokalypsis Ioannou, “Revelation of John.” It is also known as the Apocalypse, a transliteration of the word apokalypsis, meaning “unveiling,” “disclosure,” or “revelation.” Thus, the book is an unveiling of that which otherwise could not be known. A better title comes from its first verse: Apokalypsis Iesou Christou, “Revelation of Jesus Christ.” This could be taken as a revelation which came from Christ—or a revelation about Christ—both are appropriate. Because of the content of the book, the latter is clearly the basic meaning.

The traditional view: (1) The Greek grammar of Revelation is not on par with the Fourth Gospel or the Johannine Epistles. (2) There are also differences in vocabulary and expressions used. (3) The theological content of this book differs from John’s other writings in emphasis and presentation. (4) John’s other writings avoid the use of his name, but it is found four times in this book. While these difficulties exist, some things should be kept in mind: (1) There are a number of remarkable similarities between the Apocalypse and the other books traditionally associated with the apostle John (e.g., the distinctive use of terms, such as word, lamb, and true, and a marked development of conflicting themes, such as light and darkness, love and hatred, good and evil). (2) Many of the differences can be explained by the unique circumstances surrounding this book. The theological subject matter demands a different treatment, and John received this book not as a reflection but by a series of startling visions that John wrote down. John may have used a secretary who smoothed out the Greek style of his Gospel and Epistles, but his exile on Patmos prevented the use of such a scribe when he wrote Revelation.

Thus, the internal evidence, while problematic, does not demand a conclusion against the traditional testimony to the apostolic origin of this important book. The author was obviously well-known to the recipients in the seven Asian churches, and this fits the unqualified use of the name John and the information about his ministry in Asia. Alternate suggestions, such as John the Elder or prophet named John, create more problems than they solve.

THE AUTHOR OF REVELATION

The style, symmetry, and plan of Revelation show that it was written by one author, four times named “John” (1:1, 4, 9; 22:8; see “The Author of John”). Because of its contents and its address to seven churches, Revelation quickly circulated and became widely known and accepted in the early church. It was frequently mentioned and quoted by second- and third-century Christian writers and was received as part of the canon of New Testament books.

From the beginning, Revelation was considered an authentic work of the apostle John, the same John who wrote the gospel and three epistles. This was held to be true by Justin Martyr, the Shepherd of Hermas, Melito, Irenaeus, the Muratorian Canon, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and others.

This view was seldom questioned until the middle of the third century when Dionysius presented several arguments against the apostolic authorship of Revelation. He observed a clear difference in style and thought between Revelation and the books that he accepted as Johannine, and he concluded that the Apocalypse must have been penned by a different John. Indeed, the internal evidence does pose some problems for the traditional view. (1) The Greek grammar of Revelation is not on par with the Fourth Gospel or the Johannine Epistles. (2) There are also differences in vocabulary and expressions used. (3) The theological content of this book differs from John’s other writings in emphasis and presentation. (4) John’s other writings avoid the use of his name, but it is found four times in this book.

The author was obviously well-known to the recipients in the seven Asian churches, and this fits the unqualified use of the name John and the information about his ministry in Asia. Alternate suggestions, such as John the Elder or prophet named John, create more problems than they solve.

THE TIME OF REVELATION

John directed this prophetic word to seven selected churches in the Roman province of Asia (1:3, 4). The messages to these churches in chapters 2 and 3 begin with Ephesus, the most prominent, and continue in a clockwise direction until Laodicea is reached. It is likely that this book was initially carried along this circular route. While each of these messages has particular significance for these churches, they were also relevant for the church as a whole (“He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches”).

John’s effective testimony for Christ led the Roman authorities to exile him to the small, desolate island of Patmos in the Aegean Sea (1:9). This island of volcanic rock was one of several places to which the Romans banished criminals and political offenders.

Revelation was written at a time when Roman hostility to Christianity was erupting into overt persecution (1:9; 2:10, 13). Some scholars believe that it should be given an early date during the persecution of Christians under Nero after the A.D. 64 burning of Rome. The Hebrew letters for Nero Caesar (Neron Kesar) add up to 666, the number of the beast (13:18), and there was a legend that Nero would reappear in the East after his apparent death (cf. Rev. 13:3, 12, 14). This kind of evidence is weak, and a later date near the end of the reign of the emperor Domitian (A.D. 81–96) is preferable for several reasons: (1) This was the testimony of Irenaeus (disciple of Polycarp who was a disciple of John) and other early Christian writers. (2) John probably did not move from Jerusalem to Ephesus until about A.D. 67, shortly before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. The early dating would not give him enough time to have established an ongoing ministry in Asia by the time he wrote this book. (3) The churches of Asia appear to have been in existence for a number of years, long enough for some to reach a point of complacency and decline (cf. 2:4; 3:1, 15–18). (4) The deeds of Domitian are more relevant than those of Nero to the themes of the Apocalypse. Worship of deceased emperors had been practiced for years, but Domitian was the first emperor to demand worship while he was alive. This led to a greater clash between the state and the church, especially when the worship of Caesar was widely viewed as a test of political loyalty.

Thus, it is likely that John wrote this book in A.D. 95 or 96. (The date of his release from Patmos is unknown, but he was probably allowed to return to Ephesus after the reign of Domitian.) Passages such as 1:1, 22:7, 9, 10, 18, 19 suggest that the book was completed before John’s release.

THE CHRIST OF REVELATION

Revelation has much to say about all three persons of the Godhead, but it is especially clear in its presentation of the awesome resurrected Christ who has received all authority to judge the earth. He is called Jesus Christ (1:1), the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, the ruler over the kings of the earth (1:5), the First and the Last (1:17), He who lives (1:18), the Son of God (2:18), holy and true (3:7), the Amen, the Faithful and True Witness, the Beginning of the creation of God (3:14), the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David (5:5), a Lamb (5:6), Faithful and True (19:11), the Word of God (19:13), King of Kings, and Lord of Lords (19:16), Alpha and Omega (22:13), the Bright and Morning Star (22:16), and the Lord Jesus Christ (22:21).

This book is indeed “The Revelation of Jesus Christ” (1:1) since it comes from Him and centers on Him. It begins with a vision of His glory, wisdom, and power (1), and portrays His authority over the entire church (2, 3). He is the Lamb who was slain and declared worthy to open the book of judgment (5). His righteous wrath is poured out upon the whole earth (6–18), and He returns in power to judge His enemies and to reign as the Lord over all (19, 20). He will rule forever over the heavenly city in the presence of all who know Him (21, 22).

The Scriptures close with His great promise: “Behold, I am coming quickly” (22:7, 12). “Surely I am coming quickly.” Amen. Even so, come, Lord Jesus” (22:20).

KEYS TO REVELATION

Key Word: The Revelation of the Coming of Christ — The purpose of Revelation was written—depending to some extent on how the book as a whole is interpreted. Because of its complex imagery and symbolism, Revelation is the most difficult biblical book to interpret, and there are four major alternatives: (1) The symbolic or idealist view maintains that Revelation is not a predictive prophecy, but a symbolic portrait of the cosmic conflict of spiritual principles. (2) The preterist view (the Latin word preter means “past”) maintains that it is a symbolic description of the Roman persecution of the church, emperor worship, and the divine judgment of Rome. (3) The historicist view sees Revelation as a symbolic pre-narration of church history from the first century until the second Advent. (4) The futurist view acknowledges the obvious influence that the first-century conflict between Roman power and the church had upon the themes of this book. It also accepts chapters Revelation (4—22) as an inspired look at the time immediately preceding the Second Advent — the “Tribulation,” usually seen as seven years (6–18), and extending from the return of Christ to the creation of the new cosmos (19–22).

Advocates of all four interpretive approaches to Revelation agree that it was written to assure its recipients of the ultimate triumph of Christ over all who rise up against Him and His saints. The readers were facing dark times of persecution, and even worse times would follow. Therefore they needed to be encouraged to persevere by standing firm in Christ in view of God’s plan for the righteous and the wicked. This plan is especially clear in the stirring words of the epilogue (22:6–21). The book was written to challenge complacent Christians to stop compromising with the world. According to futurists, Revelation serves the additional purpose of providing a perspective on end-time events that would have meaning and relevance to the spiritual lives of all succeeding generations of Christians.

Key Verses: Revelation 1:19 and 19:11–15 — “Write the things which you have seen, and the things which are, and the things which will take place after this.”

OUTLINE OF REVELATION

Part One: “The Things Which You Have Seen” (1:1–20)
I. Introduction ............. 1:1–8
II. Revelation of Christ ........... 1:9–20

Part Two: “The Things Which Are” (2:1—3:22)
I. Message to Ephesus ............... 2:1–7
II. Message to Smyrna ............... 2:8–11
III. Message to Pergamos ........... 2:12–17
IV. Message to Thyatira ............. 2:18–29
V. Message to Sardis ............ 3:1–6
VI. Message to Philadelphia .......... 3:7–13
VII. Message to Laodicea ............. 3:14–22

Part Three: “The Things Which Will Take Place After This” (4:1—22:21)
I. Person of the Judge ............. 4:1–5:14
A. The Throne of God ............. 4:1–11
B. The Sealed Book ............... 5:1–14

2. Second Seal ............ 6:3, 4
3. Third Seal .............. 6:5, 6
4. Fourth Seal ............ 6:7, 8
5. Fifth Seal ............... 6:9–11
6. Sixth Seal ............... 6:12–17
7. 144,000 Jews ......... 7:1–8
8. Great Multitude of Gentiles 7:9–17
9. Seventh Seal .......... 8:1–5

B. Seven Trumpets of Judgment .................. 8:6—11:19
1. First Trumpet ......... 8:6, 7
2. Second Trumpet ... 8:8, 9
3. Third Trumpet ....... 8:10, 11
4. Fourth Trumpet .... 8:12, 13
5. Fifth Trumpet ......... 9:1–12
6. Sixth Trumpet ........ 9:13–21
7. Little Book .............. 10:1–11
8. Two Witnesses ....... 11:1–14
9. Seventh Trumpet ... 11:15–19

C. Explanatory Prophecies ........ 12:1—14:20
6 1. The Woman ............. 12:1–6
2. The War in Heaven ............... 12:7–12
3. The War on Earth .. 12:13–17
4. The Beast Out of the Sea ........ 13:1–10
5. The Beast Out of the Earth ...... 13:11–18
6. The 144,000 ............ 14:1–5
7. The Three Angels’ Announcements ......... 14:6–13
8. The Harvest Judgment ........... 14:14–20

D. Seven Bowls of Judgment ... 15:1—19:6
1. Preparation for the Bowl Judgments .......... 15:1–8
2. First Bowl ................. 16:1, 2
3. Second Bowl ............ 16:3
4. Third Bowl ............... 16:4–7
5. Fourth Bowl ............ 16:8, 9
6. Fifth Bowl ............... 16:10, 11
7. Sixth Bowl ............... 16:12–16
8. Seventh Bowl .......... 16:17–21
9. Overthrow of the Great Harlot .................. 17:1–18
a. Great Harlot Is Described ... 17:1–6
b. Great Harlot Is Destroyed ... 17:7–18
10. Overthrow of Babylon the Great ............... 18:1—19:6
a. Babylon the Great Is Destroyed ................. 18:1–8
b. Earth Mourns Babylon’s Destruction ....... 18:9–19
c. Heaven Rejoices Babylon’s Destruction .... 18:20—19:6

III. Prophecies of the Second Coming ............ 19:7–21
A. Marriage Supper of the Lamb 19:7–10
B. Second Coming of Christ ........ 19:11–21

IV. Prophecies of the Millennium .................... 20:1–15
A. Satan Is Bound 1,000 Years ... 20:1–3
B. Saints Reign 1,000 Years ......... 20:4–6
C. Satan Is Released and Leads Rebellion ....... 20:7–9
D. Satan Is Tormented Forever ... 20:10
E. Great White Throne Judgment ..................... 20:11–15

V. Prophecies of the Eternal State ................. 21:1—22:5
A. New Heaven and Earth Are Created ............ 21:1
B. New Jerusalem Descends ........ 21:2–8
C. New Jerusalem Is Described ... 21:9—22:5

VI. Conclusion ............. 22:6–21